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{{short description|Native American and First Nations ethnic groups}}
{{about|the ethnic group}}
{{Use American English|date=June 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Sioux
| native_name = Očhéthi Šakówiŋ
| image = En-chief-sitting-bull.jpg
| image_caption = [[Sitting Bull]], a [[Hunkpapa]] [[Lakota people|Lakota]] chief and [[medicine man|holy man]], {{circa}} 1831 – December 15, 1890.
| population = 170,110 (2010)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Norris |first1=Tina |last2=Vines |first2=Paula L. |last3=Hoeffel |first3=Elizabeth M. |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf |title=The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010 |date=January 2012 |work=United States Census Bureau |publisher=United States Department of Commerce |access-date=9 September 2012 |archive-date=May 5, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505221036/http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| popplace = United States: ([[South Dakota]], [[Minnesota]], [[Nebraska]], [[Montana]], [[North Dakota]], [[Iowa]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Illinois]], [[Wyoming]])<br />Canada: ([[Manitoba]], [[Saskatchewan]])
| rels = [[Wocekiye]], [[Christianity]] (incl. [[Religious syncretism|syncretistic]] forms), traditional religion
| langs = [[Sioux language]] ([[Lakota language|Lakota]], [[Western Dakota language|Western Dakota]], [[Eastern Dakota]]), [[English language|English]]
| related = [[Assiniboine]], [[Dakota people|Dakota]], [[Lakota people|Lakota]], [[Nakoda (Stoney)]], and other Siouan-speaking peoples
}}
The '''Sioux''' or '''Oceti Sakowin''' ({{IPAc-en|s|uː}} {{respell|SOO}}; [[Dakota language|Dakota]]/[[Lakota language|Lakota]]: {{lang|dak|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ}} {{IPA|dak|oˈtʃʰeːtʰi ʃaˈkoːwĩ|}}) are groups of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American tribes]] and [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] people from the [[Great Plains]] of North America. The Sioux have two major [[Siouan languages|linguistic divisions]]: the [[Dakota people|Dakota]] and [[Lakota people]]s (translation: {{Gloss|friend, ally}} referring to the alliances between the bands). Collectively, they are the {{Lang|dak|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ}}, or {{Gloss|Seven Council Fires}}. The term ''Sioux'', an [[exonym]] from a [[French language|French]] transcription ({{lang|fr|Nadouessioux}}) of the [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]] term {{lang|oj-latn|Nadowessi}}, can refer to any ethnic group within the Great Sioux Nation or to any of the nation's many language dialects.
Before the 17th century, the [[Santee Dakota]] ({{lang|dak|Isáŋyathi}}: {{Gloss|Knife}}, also known as the Eastern Dakota) lived around [[Lake Superior]] with territories in present-day northern Minnesota and Wisconsin. They gathered [[wild rice]], hunted woodland animals, and used canoes to fish. Wars with the [[Ojibwe]] throughout the 18th century pushed the Dakota west into southern Minnesota, where the Western Dakota (Yankton, Yanktonai) and Lakota (Teton) lived. In the 19th century, the Dakota signed land cession treaties with the United States for much of their Minnesota lands. The United States' failure to make treaty payments or provide rations on time led to starvation and the [[Dakota War of 1862]], which resulted in the Dakota's exile from Minnesota. They were forced onto reservations in Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota, and some fled to Canada. After 1870, the Dakota people began to return to Minnesota, creating the present-day reservations in the state. The Yankton and Yanktonai Dakota ({{lang|dak|Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ}} and {{lang|dak|Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna}}; {{Gloss|Village-at-the-end}} and {{Gloss|Little village-at-the-end}}), collectively also called by the [[exonym and endonym|endonym]] {{lang|dak|Wičhíyena}}, lived near the [[Minnesota River]] before ceding their land and moving to South Dakota in 1858. Despite ceding their lands, their treaty with the U.S. government allowed them to maintain their traditional role in the {{Lang|dak|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ}} as the caretakers of the [[Pipestone National Monument|Pipestone Quarry]], a cultural center for Sioux people. Considered the Western Dakota, they have in the past been erroneously classified as [[Nakota]].<ref>for a report on the long-established blunder of misnaming as "Nakota", the Yankton and the Yanktonai, see the article [[Nakota]]</ref> Nakota are the [[Assiniboine]] and [[Nakoda (Stoney)|Stoney]] of [[Western Canada]] and [[Montana]].
The [[Lakota people|Lakota]], also called Teton ({{lang|dak|Thítȟuŋwaŋ}}; possibly {{Gloss|dwellers on the prairie}}), are the westernmost Sioux, known for their [[Plains Indians]] [[horse culture|hunting and warrior culture]]. With the arrival of the horse in the 18th century, the Lakota became a powerful tribe on the Northern Plains by the 1850s. They fought the U.S. Army in the [[Sioux Wars]] and defeated the [[7th Cavalry Regiment]] at the [[Battle of Little Big Horn]]. The armed conflicts with the U.S. ended with the [[Wounded Knee Massacre]].
Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, the Dakota and Lakota continued to fight for their [[treaty rights]], including the [[Wounded Knee incident]], [[Dakota Access Pipeline protests]], and the 1980 [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] case ''[[United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians]]'', in which the court ruled that the US government had illegally taken tribal lands covered by the [[Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868]] and that the tribe was owed compensation plus interest. As of 2018, this amounted to more than $1 billion; the Sioux have refused the payment, demanding instead the [[Black Hills land claim|return of the Black Hills]]. Today, the Sioux maintain many separate tribal governments across several reservations and communities in [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Nebraska]], [[Minnesota]], and [[Montana]] in the United States and reserves in [[Manitoba]] and [[Saskatchewan]] in Canada.
==Culture==
===Etymology===
[[File:"Black Tail Deer, Sioux Chief, also a policeman at Rosebud Agency." Department of Anthropology, 1904 World's Fair.jpg|thumb|right|Chief Black Tail Deer and his family at the [[1904 World's Fair]]]]
The Sioux people refer to their whole nation of people (sometimes called the Great Sioux Nation) as the '''{{Lang|dak|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ}}''' (meaning {{Gloss|Seven Council Fires}}). Each fire symbolizes an {{Lang|dak|oyate}} (people or nation). Today the seven nations that comprise the {{Lang|dak|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ}} are:
* {{Lang|dak|Thítȟuŋwaŋ}} (also known collectively as the Lakota or Teton)
* {{Lang|dak|Bdewákaŋthuŋwaŋ}}, {{Lang|dak|Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ}}, {{Lang|dak|Waȟpékhute}}, and {{Lang|dak|Sisíthuŋwaŋ}} (also known collectively as the Santee or Eastern Dakota)
* {{Lang|dak|Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ}} and {{Lang|dak|Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna}} (also known collectively as the Yankton/Yanktonai or Western Dakota).<ref name="Sioux nation">{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Michael |title=The Tribes of the Sioux Nation |publisher=Osprey Publishing Oxford |year=2000 |isbn=1-85532-878-X }}</ref><ref name="NLD"/>
They are also referred to as the [[Lakota people|Lakota]] or [[Dakota people|Dakota]] based on dialect differences.<ref name="Sioux nation"/><ref name="NLD"/> In any of the dialects, ''Lakota'' or ''Dakota'' translates as {{Gloss|friend, ally}}, referring to the alliances between the bands.<ref name="Sioux nation"/><ref name="NLD"/>
The name ''Sioux'' was adopted in [[English language|English]] by the 1760s from [[French language|French]]. It is abbreviated from the French {{lang|fr|Nadouessioux}}, first attested by [[Jean Nicolet]] in 1640.<ref name="Sioux nation"/> The name is sometimes said to be derived from {{lang|oj-latn|Nadowessi}} (plural {{lang|oj-latn|Nadowessiwag}}),<ref name="Four Siouan Languages 1956">NAA MS 4800 [59]. Three drafts of On the Comparative Phonology of Four Siouan Languages. James O. Dorsey papers, circa 1870–1956, bulk 1870–1895. National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution</ref> an [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]] [[exonym]] for the Sioux meaning {{Gloss|little snakes}}<ref>{{cite web|access-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-date=July 4, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704131118/http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/f/frazier-rez.html |title=Among the Sioux |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/f/frazier-rez.html |url-status=live |work=The New York Times}}</ref> or {{Gloss|enemy}}<ref>{{cite news
| last = Sehgal
| first = Paul
| title = 'Lakota America' Puts the Tribe of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse Front and Center
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/22/books/review-lakota-america-pekka-hamalainen.html
| work = The New York Times
| date = 2019-10-22
| access-date = November 30, 2023
| archive-date = March 21, 2023
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230321185856/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/22/books/review-lakota-america-pekka-hamalainen.html
| url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = https://www.lakotatimes.com/articles/countries-and-their-capitals/
| title = Countries and Their Capitals
| publisher = Lakota Times
| author = ohtadmin
| date = 2018-08-30
| access-date = November 30, 2023
| archive-date = December 11, 2023
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231211123227/https://www.lakotatimes.com/articles/countries-and-their-capitals/
| url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4mpECwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117
| title = Participants in the Battle of the Little Big Horn: A Biographical Dictionary
| author = Frederic C. Wagner III
| year = 2016
| publisher = McFarland & Company; 2nd edition
| isbn = 978-1476664590
| page = 117
| access-date = November 30, 2023
| archive-date = December 11, 2023
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231211065111/https://books.google.com/books?id=4mpECwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117
| url-status = live
}}</ref> (compare {{lang|oj-latn|nadowe}} {{Gloss|big snakes}}, used for the [[Iroquois]]).<ref>[http://indians.org/articles/sioux-indians.html Learn about the history of the Sioux Indians] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414095103/http://www.indians.org/articles/sioux-indians.html |date=April 14, 2012 }}. Indians.org. Retrieved on 2012-07-08.</ref> The French pluralized the Ojibwe singular {{lang|oj-latn|Nadowessi}} by adding the French plural suffix {{lang|fr|-oux}} to form {{lang|fr|Nadowessioux}}, which was later shortened to {{lang|fr|Sioux}}.<ref name="Four Siouan Languages 1956" /> The [[Proto-Algonquian language|Proto-Algonquian]] form {{Lang|mis|*na·towe·wa}}, meaning {{Gloss|Northern Iroquoian}}, has reflexes in several daughter languages that refer to a small rattlesnake ([[massasauga]], ''Sistrurus'').<ref name="riggs">{{cite book |last=Riggs |first=Stephen R. |title=Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography |url=https://archive.org/details/grammerdakota09riggrich |publisher=Washington Government Printing Office, Ross & Haines, Inc. |year=1893 |isbn=0-87018-052-5 }}</ref> An alternative explanation is derivation from an (Algonquian) exonym, {{lang|alg|na·towe·ssiw}} (plural {{lang|alg|na·towe·ssiwak}}), from a verb {{lang|alg|*-a·towe·}} meaning {{Gloss|to speak a foreign language}}.<ref name="dict">{{cite web | url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sioux | title = Sioux | work = [[Dictionary.com]] | access-date = 2007-09-05 | archive-date = October 14, 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071014214713/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sioux | url-status = live }}</ref> The current Ojibwe term for the Sioux and related groups is {{lang|oj-latn|Bwaanag}} (singular {{lang|oj-latn|Bwaan}}), meaning {{Gloss|roasters}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=a Dakota|url=http://ojibwe.lib.umn.edu/main-entry/bwaan-na|website=The Ojibwe People's Dictionary|publisher=University of Minnesota Board of Regents|access-date=29 August 2015|archive-date=November 1, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151101092532/http://ojibwe.lib.umn.edu/main-entry/bwaan-na|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ningewance |first1=Patricia M. |title=Zagataagan, A Northern Ojibwe Dictionary, Anishinaabemowin Ikidowinan gaa-niibidebii'igadegin dago gaye ewemitigoozhiibii'igaadegin, Ojibwe-English Volume 2 |date=2009 |publisher=Kwayaciiwin Education Resource Centre |location=61 King St. Sioux Lookout ON. Canada |isbn=978-1-897579-15-2 |page=81}}</ref> Presumably, this refers to the style of cooking the Sioux used in the past.
In recent times, some of the tribes have formally or informally reclaimed traditional names: the Rosebud Sioux Tribe is also known as the {{Lang|dak|Sičháŋǧu Oyáte}}, and the Oglala often use the name {{Lang|dak|Oglála Lakȟóta Oyáte}}, rather than the formal [[Oglala Sioux Tribe]] or OST. The alternative English spelling of ''Ogallala'' is considered incorrect.<ref name="Sioux nation"/>
===Traditional social structure===
The traditional social structure of the {{Lang|dak|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ}} strongly relied on kinship ties that extend beyond human interaction and includes the natural and supernatural worlds.<ref name="Neihardt 1984">{{cite book | last=Neihardt | first=John | title=The Sixth Grandfather: Black Elk's teachings given to John G. Neihardt | publisher=University of Nebraska Press | location=Lincoln | year=1984 | isbn=978-0-8032-6564-6 | oclc=45729827}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Robert T.F. Downes |date=2024-07-09 |title=Natural Dialectics: Māori & Sioux Ecosophy Encounters the Rule of Law |url=https://scholarworks.arcadia.edu/agsjournal/vol9/iss1/2/ |journal=The Journal of International Relations, Peace Studies, and Development |volume=9 |issue=1 |issn=2429-2133}}</ref> [[Mitakuye Oyasin|''Mitákuye Oyás’iŋ'']] ({{Gloss|all are related}}) represents a spiritual belief of how human beings should ideally act and relate to other humans, the natural world, the spiritual world, and to the cosmos.<ref name="Ruml 2010"/> The {{Lang|dak|thiyóšpaye}} represents the political and economic structure of traditional society.
==== {{Lang|dak|Thiyóšpaye}} (community) kinship ====
[[File:Bird's Eye View of Sioux Camp at Pine Ridge, South Dakota - NARA - 530802.jpg|thumb|{{Lang|dak|Thiyóšpaye}} at Pine Ridge, South Dakota, c. 1890]]
Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the different {{Lang|dak|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ}} villages ({{Lang|dak|oyáte}}, {{Gloss|tribe, nation}}) consisted of many {{Lang|dak|thiyóšpaye}} ({{Gloss|camp circles}}), which were large extended families united by kinship ({{Lang|dak|thiwáhe}}, {{Gloss|immediate family}}).<ref name="Deloria 1998">{{cite book | last=Deloria | first=Ella | title=Speaking of Indians | publisher=University of Nebraska Press | location=Lincoln | year=1998 | isbn=978-0-8032-6614-8 | oclc=38884640}}</ref> {{Lang|dak|Thiyóšpaye}} varied in size, were led by a leader appointed by an elder council and were nicknamed after a prominent member or memorable event associated with the band. Dakota ethnographer [[Ella Cara Deloria]] noted the kinship ties were all-important, they dictated and demanded all phrases of traditional life:
{{blockquote|"I can safely say that the ultimate aim of Dakota life, stripped of accessories, was quite simple: one must obey kinship rules; one must be a good relative. No Dakota who participated in that life will dispute that… every other consideration was secondary—property, personal ambition, glory, good times, life itself. Without that aim and constant struggle to attain it, the people would no longer be Dakotas in truth. They would no longer even be human. To be a good Dakota, then, was to be humanized, civilized. And to be civilized was to keep the rules imposed by kinship for achieving civility, good manners, and a sense of responsibility toward every individual dealt with".<ref name="Deloria 1998"/>}}
During the [[North American fur trade|fur trade era]], the {{Lang|dak|thiyóšpaye}} refused to trade only for economic reasons. Instead the production and trade of goods was regulated by rules of kinship bonds.<ref name="dakotaeconomics">{{cite journal |last1=Whelan |first1=Mary |title=Dakota Indian Economics and the Nineteenth-Century Fur Trade |journal=Ethnohistory |date=Spring 1993 |volume=40 |issue=2 |page=249 |publisher=Duke University Press| doi=10.2307/482203|jstor=482203 }}</ref> Personal relationships were pivotal for success: in order for European-Americans to trade with the {{Lang|dak|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ}}, social bonds had to be created.<ref name="dakotaeconomics"/> The most successful fur traders married into the kinship society, which also raised the status of the family of the woman through access to European goods.<ref name="Sundstrom 2002">{{cite journal | last=Sundstrom | first=Linea | title=Steel Awls for Stone Age Plainswomen: Rock Art, Religion, and the Hide Trade on the Northern Plains | journal=Plains Anthropologist | publisher=Plains Anthropological Society | volume=47 | issue=181 | year=2002 | pages=99–119| doi=10.1080/2052546.2002.11949234 | s2cid=162616450 }}</ref> Outsiders are also adopted into the kinship through the religious {{Lang|dak|Huŋkalowaŋpi}} ceremony. Early European explorers and missionaries who lived among the Dakota were sometimes adopted into the {{Lang|dak|thiyóšpaye}} (known as "huŋka relatives"), such as [[Louis Hennepin]] who noted, "this help'd me to gain credit among these people".<ref name="Ruml 2009 pp. 507–531">{{cite journal | last=Ruml | first=Mark | title=The Dakota Little People and the Tree-Dweller Dreamers: A matter of respect | journal=Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=38 | issue=3–4 | year=2009 | issn=0008-4298 | doi=10.1177/00084298090380030601 | pages=507–531| s2cid=143879263 }}</ref> During the later [[Indian reservation#Rise of Indian removal policy (1830–1868)|reservation era]], districts were often settled by clusters of families from the same {{Lang|dak|thiyóšpaye}}.<ref name="Pickering 2000 p. 8">{{cite book | last=Pickering | first=Kathleen | title=Lakota culture, world economy | publisher=University of Nebraska Press | location=Lincoln | year=2000 | isbn=978-0-8032-3690-5 | oclc=50699906 | page=8}}</ref>
==== Religion ====
{{see also|Lakota mythology|List of Lakota deities|Wocekiye|Sun Dance|Ghost Dance}}
[[File:Blackhawk-spiritbeing.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ledger art]]work by [[Lakota people|Lakota]] artist [[Black Hawk (artist)|Black Hawk]] representing a [[Heyoka|heyókȟa]], (dreamer of a [[Wakíŋyaŋ]], thunder being), c.1880]]
The traditional social system extended beyond human interaction into the [[supernatural]] realms.<ref name="Ruml 2010">{{cite journal | last=Ruml | first=Mark | title=Mitákuye Owás'į (All My Relatives): Dakota Wiconi (Way of Life) and Wicozani Waste (Well-Being) | journal=Aboriginal Policy Research| publisher=Thompson Educational Publishing | volume=6 | issue=3–4 | year=2010 | pages=187–202}}</ref> It is believed that [[Wakan Tanka|''Wakȟáŋ Tháŋka'']] ({{Gloss|Great Spirit/Great Mystery}}) created the universe and embodies everything in the universe as one.<ref name="Neihardt 1984"/> The preeminent symbol of Sioux religion is the [[medicine wheel|''Čhaŋgléska Wakȟaŋ'']] or medicine wheel ({{Gloss|sacred hoop}}), which visually represents the concept that everything in the universe is intertwined.<ref name="Elk 1953"/> The creation stories of the {{Lang|dak|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ}} describe how the [[List of Lakota deities|various spirits]] were formed from {{Lang|dak|Wakȟáŋ Tháŋka}}.<ref name="Dooling 2000">{{cite book | last=Dooling | first=D. M. | title=The sons of the wind: the sacred stories of the Lakota | publisher=University of Oklahoma Press | location=Norman | year=2000 | isbn=978-0-8061-3224-2 | oclc=42708159}}</ref> [[Black Elk]] describes the relationships with {{Lang|dak|Wakȟáŋ Tháŋka}} as:
{{blockquote|"We should understand well that all things are the works of the Great Spirit. We should know that He is within all things: the trees, the grasses, the rivers, the mountains, and all the four-legged animals, and the winged peoples; and even more important, we should understand that He is also above all these things and peoples. When we do understand all this deeply in our hearts, then we will fear, and love, and know the Great Spirit, and then we will be and act and live as He intends".<ref name="Elk 1953">{{cite book | last=Elk | first=Black | title=The sacred pipe: Black Elk's account of the seven rites of the Oglala Sioux | publisher=University of Oklahoma Press | location=Norman | year=1953 | isbn=978-0-8061-2124-6 | oclc=772729}}</ref>}}
Prayer is believed to invoke relationships with one's ancestors or spiritual world.<ref name="Deloria 1998"/> The Lakota word for {{Gloss|prayer}}, [[Wocekiye|''wočhékiye'']], means {{Gloss|to call on for aid, to pray, to claim relationship with}}.<ref name="Neihardt 1984"/> Their primary cultural prophet is Ptesáŋwiŋ, [[White Buffalo Calf Woman]], who came as an intermediary between {{Lang|dak|Wakȟáŋ Tháŋka}} Tȟáŋka and humankind to teach them how to be good relatives by introducing the Seven Sacred Rites and the [[Chanunpa|''čhaŋnúŋpa'']] ([[ceremonial pipe|sacred pipe]]).<ref name="Elk 1953"/> The seven ceremonies are [[Inipi|''Inípi'']] (purification lodge), {{Lang|dak|Haŋbléčheyapi}} ([[Vision quest|crying for vision]]), {{Lang|dak|Wiwáŋyaŋg Wačhípi}} ([[Sun Dance]]), {{Lang|dak|Huŋkalowaŋpi}} (making of relatives), {{Lang|dak|Išnáthi Awíčhalowaŋpi}} (female puberty ceremony), {{Lang|dak|Tȟápa Waŋkáyeyapi}} (throwing of the ball) and {{Lang|dak|Wanáǧi Yuhápi}} (soul keeping).<ref name="Elk 1953"/> Each part of the sacred pipe (stem, bowl, tobacco, breath, and smoke) is symbolic of the relationships of the natural world, the elements, humans and the spiritual beings that maintain the cycle of the universe.<ref name="The Pluralism Project">{{cite web | title=Sacred Pipe of the Lakota Sioux | website=The Pluralism Project | url=https://pluralism.org/sacred-pipe-of-the-lakota-sioux | access-date=June 20, 2020 | archive-date=June 22, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622081039/https://pluralism.org/sacred-pipe-of-the-lakota-sioux | url-status=live }}</ref>
Dreams can also be a means of establishing relationships with spirits and are important to the {{Lang|dak|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ}}.<ref name="Ruml 2010"/> One can gain supernatural powers through dreams. Dreaming of the [[Wakíŋyaŋ]] (thunder beings) is believed to involuntarily make someone a [[Heyoka|''Heyókȟa'']], a sacred clown.<ref name="heyoka">{{cite journal | last=Lewis | first=Thomas H | title=The Heyoka Cult in Historical and Contemporary Oglala Sioux Society | journal=Anthropos | publisher=JSTOR | volume=69 | issue=1/2 | year=1974 | pages=17–32 | jstor=40458509}}</ref> [[Black Elk]], a famous {{Lang|dak|Heyókȟa}} said: "Only those who have had visions of the thunder beings of the west can act as heyokas. They have sacred power and they share some of this with all the people, but they do it through funny actions".<ref name="ElkNeihardt2008">{{cite book|author1=Black Elk|author2=John G. Neihardt|title=Black Elk Speaks: Being the Life Story of a Holy Man of the Oglala Sioux, the Premier Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7p9VqRLiKqcC&pg=PA149|date=16 October 2008|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-1-4384-2540-5|pages=149–|access-date=June 20, 2020|archive-date=March 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319061526/https://books.google.com/books?id=7p9VqRLiKqcC&pg=PA149|url-status=live}}</ref>
====Governance====
'''Historical leadership organization'''
[[File:1854 Catlin Sioux Black Rock mit Familie anagoria.JPG|thumb|Sioux chief with family, by [[George Catlin]], 1854]]
[[File:Red Cloud and other Sioux.jpg|thumb|right|Chief [[Red Cloud]] and other Lakota leaders, c. 1865–1880]]
The {{Lang|dak|thiyóšpaye}} of the {{Lang|dak|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ}} assembled each summer to hold council, renew kinships, decide tribal matters, and participate in the [[Sun Dance]].<ref name="life and customs">{{cite book |last1=Hassrick |first1=Royal B. |last2=Maxwell |first2=Dorothy |last3=Bach |first3=Cile M. |title=The Sioux: Life and Customs of a Warrior Society |url=https://archive.org/details/sioux00roya |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1964 |isbn=0-8061-0607-7 }}</ref> The seven divisions selected four leaders known as {{Lang|dak|Wičháša Yatápika}} from among the leaders of each division.<ref name="life and customs"/> Being one of the four leaders was considered the highest honor for a leader; however, the annual gathering meant the majority of tribal administration was cared for by the usual leaders of each division. The last meeting of the Seven Council Fires was in 1850.<ref name="life and customs"/> The historical political organization was based on individual participation and the cooperation of many to sustain the tribe's way of life. Leaders were chosen based upon noble birth and demonstrations of chiefly virtues, such as bravery, fortitude, generosity, and wisdom.<ref name="life and customs"/>
* Political leaders were members of the {{Lang|dak|Načá Omníčiye}} society and decided matters of tribal hunts, camp movements, whether to make war or peace with their neighbors, or any other community action.<ref name="dog soldiers">{{cite book |last=Mails |first=Thomas E. |title=Dog Soldiers, Bear Men, and Buffalo Women: A Study of the Societies and Cults of the Plains Indians |publisher=Prentice-Hall, Inc. |year=1973 |isbn=0-13-217216-X |url=https://archive.org/details/dogsoldiersbearm00mail }}</ref>
* Societies were similar to [[Fraternal and service organizations|fraternities]]; men joined to raise their position in the tribe. Societies were composed of smaller clans and varied in number among the seven divisions.<ref name="life and customs"/> There were two types of societies: {{Lang|dak|Akíčhita}}, for the younger men, and {{Lang|dak|Načá}}, for elders and former leaders.<ref name="life and customs"/>
* {{Lang|dak|Akíčhita}} (Warrior) societies existed to train warriors, hunters, and to police the community.<ref name="dog soldiers"/> There were many smaller {{Lang|dak|Akíčhita}} societies, including the Kit-Fox, Strong Heart, Elk, and so on.<ref name="dog soldiers"/>
* Leaders in the {{Lang|dak|Načá}} societies, per {{Lang|dak|Načá Omníčiye}}, were the tribal elders and leaders. They elected seven to ten men, depending on the division, each referred to as {{Lang|dak|Wičháša Itȟáŋčhaŋ}} ("chief man"). Each {{Lang|dak|Wičháša Itȟáŋčhaŋ}} interpreted and enforced the decisions of the {{Lang|dak|Načá}}.<ref name="dog soldiers"/>
* The {{Lang|dak|Wičháša Itȟáŋčhaŋ}} elected two to four shirt-wearers, who were the voice of the society. They settled quarrels among families and also foreign nations.<ref name="life and customs"/> Shirt-wearers were often young men from families with hereditary claims of leadership. However, men with obscure parents who displayed outstanding leadership skills and had earned the respect of the community might also be elected. [[Crazy Horse]] is an example of a common-born shirt-wearer".<ref name="life and customs"/>
* A {{Lang|dak|Wakíčhuŋza}} {{Gloss|pipe-holder}} ranked below the "Shirt Wearers". The pipe-holders regulated peace ceremonies, selected camp locations, and supervised the {{Lang|dak|Akíčhita}} societies during buffalo hunts.<ref name="dog soldiers"/>
====Gender roles====
Within the Sioux tribes, there were defined gender roles. The men in the village were tasked as the hunters, traveling outside the village.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Medicine|first=Beatrice|date=1985|title=Child Socialization among Native Americans: The Lakota (Sioux) in Cultural Context|journal=Wíčazo Ša Review|volume=1|issue=2|pages=23–28|doi=10.2307/1409119|jstor=1409119}}</ref> The women within the village were in charge of making clothing and similar articles while also taking care of, and owning, the house.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/topic/plains_indian|title=Plains Indian – Credo Reference|website=search.credoreference.com|access-date=2019-06-30|archive-date=June 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190630223630/https://search.credoreference.com/content/topic/plains_indian|url-status=live}}</ref> However, even with these roles, both men and women held power in decision-making tasks and sexual preferences were flexible and allowed.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> The term ''[[winkte|wíŋtke]]'' refers to men who partook in traditional feminine duties while the term {{Lang|dak|witkówiŋ}} ({{Gloss|crazy woman}}) was used for women who rejected their roles as either mother or wife to be a prostitute.<ref name=":1" />
=== Funeral practices ===
'''Traditional Funeral Practices'''
[[File:Funeral scaffold of a Sioux chief 0044v crop.jpg|thumb|Funeral scaffold of a Sioux chief ([[Karl Bodmer]])]]
It is a common belief amongst Siouan communities that the spirit of the deceased travels to an [[afterlife]]. In traditional beliefs, this spiritual journey was believed to start once funeral proceedings were complete and spanned over a course of four days. Mourning family and friends took part in that four-day [[Wake (ceremony)|wake]] in order to accompany the spirit to its resting place.<ref name=":02">{{cite news |last=Koskan |first=Danie |url=https://rapidcityjournal.com/lifestyles/faith-and-values/native-american-funerals-have-changed-but-retain-unique-qualities/article_1a401652-917b-5368-807e-b24c47b665ff.html |title=Native American funerals have changed but retain unique qualities |work=[[Rapid City Journal]] |date=November 15, 2014 |access-date=May 6, 2019 |archive-date=May 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506190501/https://rapidcityjournal.com/lifestyles/faith-and-values/native-american-funerals-have-changed-but-retain-unique-qualities/article_1a401652-917b-5368-807e-b24c47b665ff.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In the past, bodies were not embalmed and put up on a [[burial tree|burial tree or scaffold]] for one year before a ground burial. A platform to rest the body was put up on trees or, alternately, placed on four upright poles to elevate the body from the ground.<ref>Doyle, Susan B. (2000): ''Journeys to the Land of Gold. Emigrant Diaries from the Bozeman Trail, 1863–1866''. Helena</ref> The bodies were securely wrapped in blankets and cloths, along with many of the deceased personal belongings and were always placed with their head pointed towards the south. Mourning individuals spoke to the body and offer food as if it were still alive.<ref>Wood, W. Raymond and Thomas D. Thiessen (1987): ''Early Fur Trade on the Northern Plains. Canadian Traders Among the Mandan and Hidatsa Indians, 1738–1818''. Norman and London</ref> This practice, along with the [[Ghost Dance]], helped individuals mourn and connect the spirits of the deceased with those who were alive.<ref name="MooneyJ">Mooney, James. ''The Ghost Dance Religion and Wounded Knee''. New York: Dover Publications; 1896</ref> The only time a body was buried in the ground right after their death was if the individual was murdered: the deceased were placed in the ground with their heads towards the south, while faced down along with a piece of fat in their mouth.<ref name="MooneyJ"/>
'''Contemporary Funeral Practices'''
According to Pat Janis, director of the [[Oglala Sioux Tribe]]'s Burial Assistance Program, funeral practices of communities today are often a mix of traditions and contemporary Christian practices. While tree burials and scaffold burials are not practiced anymore, it is also now rare to see families observe a four-day wake period. Instead, the families opt for one- or two-day wake periods which include a funeral feast for all the community. Added to the contemporary funeral practices, it is common to see prayers conducted by a medicine man along with traditional songs often sung with a drum. One member of the family is also required to be present next to the body at all times until the burial.<ref name=":02"/> Gifts are placed within the casket to aid with the journey into the afterworld, which is still believed to take up to four days after death.<ref name=":02"/>
==
{{main|Sioux music}}
==History==
===Creation stories===
There are a number of [[creation stories]] within the tribes.<ref name="bdote"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Robert T.F. Downes |date=2024-07-09 |title=Natural Dialectics: Māori & Sioux Ecosophy Encounters the Rule of Law |url=https://scholarworks.arcadia.edu/agsjournal/vol9/iss1/2/ |journal=The Journal of International Relations, Peace Studies, and Development |volume=9 |issue=1 |issn=2429-2133}}</ref> One widely noted creation story for [[Dakota people]] is at [[Bdóte]], the area where the [[Minnesota River|Minnesota]] and [[Mississippi River]]s meet.<ref name="bdote">{{cite web | title=Minnesota Historical Society | website=mnhs.org | date=November 4, 2008 | url=https://www.mnhs.org/fortsnelling/learn/bdote | access-date=January 10, 2024 | archive-date=August 25, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825130600/https://www.mnhs.org/fortsnelling/learn/bdote | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Lakota people]] relate to [[Wind Cave National Park|Wind Cave]] in South Dakota as their site of emergence.<ref name="nps.gov 2020 n179">{{cite web | title=Wind Cave National Park (U.S. National Park Service) | website=nps.gov | date=October 14, 2020 | url=https://www.nps.gov/wica/learn/historyculture/the-lakota-emergence-story.htm | access-date=January 10, 2024 | archive-date=June 7, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607131128/https://www.nps.gov/wica/learn/historyculture/the-lakota-emergence-story.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>
===Ancestral Sioux===
{{see also|Hopewell tradition|Mississippian culture}}
The ancestral Sioux most likely lived in the Central Mississippi Valley region and later in Minnesota for at least two or three thousand years.<ref name="Gibbon">{{cite book |last1=Guy |first1=Gibbon |title=The Sioux The Dakota and Lakota Nations |location=New York, New York |publisher=John Wiley & Son |year=2008 }}</ref> The ancestors of the Sioux arrived in the northwoods of central Minnesota and northwestern Wisconsin from the Central Mississippi River shortly before 800 AD.<ref name="Gibbon"/> Archaeologists refer to them as the Woodland Blackduck-Kathio-Clam River Continuum.<ref name="Gibbon"/> Around 1300 AD, they adopted the characteristics of a northern tribal society and became known as the Seven Council Fires.<ref name="Gibbon"/>
===First contact with Europeans===
{{See also|North American fur trade}}
The Dakota are first recorded to have resided at the source of the [[Mississippi River]] and the Great Lakes during the seventeenth century.<ref>{{cite book |first=George E. |last=Hyde |title=Red Cloud's Folk: A History of the Oglala Sioux Indians |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |location=Norman |year=1984 |page=3 |isbn=0-8061-1520-3 }}</ref> They were dispersed west in 1659 due to warfare with the [[Iroquois]]. During the 1600s, the Lakota began their expansion westward into the Plains, taking with them the bulk of people of the {{Lang|dak|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ}}.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Michael |last1=Johnson |first2=Jonathan |last2=Smith |title=Tribes of the Sioux Nation |publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=Oxford |year=2000 |page=3 |isbn=1-85532-878-X }}</ref><ref name="midwesthistory"/> By 1700 the Dakota were living in [[Wisconsin]] and [[Minnesota]]. As the Sioux nation began expanding with access to horses, the Dakota were put in a weakened position to defend the eastern border: new diseases (smallpox and malaria) and increased intertribal warfare (between the migration of tribes fleeing the Iroquois into their territory of present-day Wisconsin) put a strain on their ability to maintain their territory.<ref name="midwesthistory"/> As a result, their population in the Mississippi valley is believed to have declined by one-third between 1680 and 1805.<ref name="midwesthistory">{{cite book |last1=McMahon |first1=Eileen |last2=Karamanski |first2=Theodore |title=North Woods River: the St. Croix River in Upper Midwest History |location=Madison, Wisconsin |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=2010}}</ref>
===French trade and intertribal warfare===
{{See also|Dakota people}}
[[File:Permanent Residence Sioux 1846–1848 Watercolor Painting by Seth Eastman.png|thumb|Permanent Residence, Santee Dakota, by [[Seth Eastman]] 1846]]
Late in the 17th century, the Dakota entered into an alliance with French merchants.<ref>{{cite book |last=van Houten |first=Gerry |title=Corporate Canada An Historical Outline |pages=6–8 |publisher=Progress Books |location=Toronto |year=1991 |isbn=0-919396-54-2 }}</ref> The French were trying to gain advantage in the struggle for the [[North American fur trade]] against the English, who had recently established the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. The [[Ojibwe]], [[Potawatomi]] and [[Odawa|Ottawa]] bands were among the first to trade with the French as they migrated into the Great Lakes region.<ref name="midwesthistory"/> Upon their arrival, Dakota were in an economic alliance with them until the Dakota were able to trade directly for European goods with the French.<ref name="midwesthistory"/> The first recorded encounter between the Sioux and the French occurred when [[Pierre-Esprit Radisson|Radisson]] and [[Médard des Groseilliers|Groseilliers]] reached what is now Wisconsin during the winter of 1659–60. Later visiting French traders and missionaries included [[Claude-Jean Allouez]], [[Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut|Daniel Greysolon Duluth]], and [[Pierre-Charles Le Sueur]] who wintered with Dakota bands in early 1700.<ref>{{cite book |first=Guy E |last=Gibbon |title=The Sioux: The Dakota and Lakota Nations |publisher=Blackwell |year=2003 |pages=48–52 |isbn=1-55786-566-3 }}</ref>
The Dakota began to resent the Ojibwe trading with the hereditary enemies of the Sioux, the [[Cree]] and [[Assiniboine]].<ref name="midwesthistory"/> Tensions rose in the 1720s into a prolonged war in 1736.<ref name="midwesthistory"/> The Dakota lost their traditional lands around [[Leech Lake]] and [[Mille Lacs Lake|Mille Lacs]] as they were forced south along the Mississippi River and St. Croix River Valley as a result of the battles.<ref name="midwesthistory"/> These intertribal conflicts also made it dangerous for European fur traders: whichever side they traded with, they were viewed as enemies from the other.<ref name="midwesthistory"/> For example, in 1736 a group of Sioux killed [[Jean Baptiste de La Vérendrye]] and twenty other men on an island in [[Lake of the Woods]] for such reasons.<ref name="lakeofthewoods">{{cite web | url = http://www.lakeofthewoodsmuseum.ca/collectionsandresearch/stories/lakeofthewoods/massacreisland.aspx | title = Where is the real Massacre Island? | access-date = 2013-04-28 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130614122244/http://www.lakeofthewoodsmuseum.ca/collectionsandresearch/stories/lakeofthewoods/massacreisland.aspx | archive-date = 2013-06-14 }}</ref> However, trade with the French continued until the French gave up North America in 1763. Europeans repeatedly tried to make truce between the warring tribes in order to protect their interests.<ref name="midwesthistory"/>
[[File:CM Russell When Blackfoot And Sioux Meet.jpeg|thumb|War on the plains. [[Blackfoot Confederacy|Blackfoot]] fighting the Sioux. Painting by [[Charles Marion Russell]]]]
One of the larger battles between the Dakota and Ojibwe took place in 1770 fought at the Dalles of the St. Croix. According to [[William Whipple Warren]], a [[Métis]] historian, the fighting began when the [[Meskwaki]] (Fox) engaged the Ojibwe (their hereditary enemies) around [[St. Croix Falls]].<ref name="WWilliam">{{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=William |title=History of the Ojibway people |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofojibway0000warr |url-access=registration |location=St Paul, Minnesota |publisher=Minnesota Historical Society Press |date=1984|isbn=9780873511629 }}</ref> The Sioux were the former enemies of the Meskwaki and were enlisted to make a joint attack against the Ojibwe.<ref name="WWilliam"/> The Meskwaki were first to engage with the large Ojibwe war party led by [[Waubojeeg]]: the Meskwaki allegedly boasted to the Dakota to hold back as they would quickly destroy their enemies. When the Dakota joined the battle, they had the upper hand until Sandy Lake Ojibwe reinforcements arrived.<ref name="WWilliam"/> The Dakota were driven back and Warren states: "Many were driven over the rocks into the boiling floods below, there to find a watery grave. Others, in attempting to jump into their narrow wooden canoes, were capsized into the rapids".<ref name="WWilliam"/> While Dakota and Ojibwe suffered heavy losses, the Meskwaki were left with the most dead and forced to join their relatives, the [[Sauk people]].<ref name="WWilliam"/> The victory for the Ojibwe secured control of the Upper St. Croix and created an informal boundary between the Dakota and Ojibwe around the mouth of the Snake River.<ref name="WWilliam"/>
As the Lakota entered the prairies, they adopted many of the customs of the neighboring [[Plains tribes]], creating new cultural patterns based on the horse and fur trade.<ref name="Gibbon"/> Meanwhile, the Dakota retained many of their Woodlands features.<ref name="Gibbon"/> By 1803, the three divisions of the Sioux (Western/Eastern Dakota and Lakota) were established in their different environments and had developed their own distinctive lifeways.<ref name="Gibbon"/> However, due to the prevalent cultural concept of thiyóšpaye (community), the three divisions maintained strong ties throughout the changing times to present day.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pexa |first1=Chris |title=Translated nation: rewriting the Dakhota Oyate |location=Minneapolis, Minnesota |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=2019 }}</ref>
===Treaties and reservation period beginnings===
In 1805, the Dakota signed their [[Treaty of St. Peters|first treaty]] with the American government. [[Zebulon Pike]] negotiated for 100,000 acres of land at the confluence of the [[St. Croix River (Wisconsin–Minnesota)|St. Croix River]] about what now is [[Hastings, Minnesota]] and the confluence of the [[Minnesota River]] and [[Mississippi River]] about what now is [[Saint Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul, Minnesota]].<ref name="mntreaties">{{cite web |url=https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/treaties/minnesota-treaties |title=Minnesota Treaties |date=August 14, 2012 |publisher=[[Minnesota Historical Society]] |access-date=August 25, 2019 |archive-date=August 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825023515/http://www.usdakotawar.org/history/treaties/minnesota-treaties |url-status=live }}</ref> The Americans wanted to establish military outposts and the Dakota wanted a new source of trading. An American military post was not established at the confluence of the St. Croix with the Mississippi, but [[Fort Snelling]] was established in 1819 along the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers.<ref name="Gibbon"/> In return, Dakota were promised the ability to "pass and repass, hunt, or make other uses of the said districts as they have formerly done".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Orsi |first1=Jared |title=Citizen explorer: the life of Zebulon Pike |location=Oxford, New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 }}</ref>
[[File:Catlin-Pipestone-Quarry.jpg|thumb|Yankton [[Pipestone National Monument|Pipestone Quarries]] as seen by [[George Catlin]] in 1836]]
In an attempt to stop intertribal warfare and to better able to negotiate with tribes, the American government signed the [[First Treaty of Prairie du Chien|1825 Treaty of Prairie du Chien]] with the Dakota, Ojibwe, Menominee, Ho-Chunk, Sac and Fox, Iowa, Potawatomi, and Ottawa tribes.<ref name="mntreaties"/> In the [[Fourth Treaty of Prairie du Chien|1830 Treaty of Prairie de Chien]], the Western Dakota (Yankton, Yanktonai) ceded their lands along the Des Moines river to the American government. Living in what is now southeastern South Dakota, the leaders of the Western Dakota signed the Treaty of April 19, 1858, which created the [[Yankton Sioux Tribe|Yankton Sioux Reservation]]. Pressured by the ongoing arrival of Europeans, Yankton chief [[Struck by the Ree]] told his people, "The white men are coming in like maggots. It is useless to resist them. They are many more than we are. We could not hope to stop them. Many of our brave warriors would be killed, our women and children left in sorrow, and still we would not stop them. We must accept it, get the best terms we can get and try to adopt their ways."<ref name="yanktonpipestone">{{cite book |last1=Landrum |first1=Cynthia |title=Acculturation of the Dakota Sioux: the boarding school experience for students at Flandreau and Pipestone Indian Schools |location=Lincoln, London |publisher=UNP-Nebraska |year=2019}}</ref> Despite ceding their lands, the treaty allowed the Western Dakota to maintain their traditional role in the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ as the caretakers of the [[Pipestone National Monument|Pipestone Quarry]], which is the cultural center of the Sioux people.<ref name="yanktonpipestone"/>
[[File:Treaty of Traverse des Sioux 1851.jpg|thumb|Map showing the boundaries of the 1851 Treaty of Traverse des Sioux land cession area (Royce Area 289)]]
With the creation of [[Minnesota Territory]] by the U.S. in 1849, the Eastern Dakota (Sisseton, Wahpeton, Mdewakanton, and Wahpekute) people were pressured to cede more of their land. The reservation period for them began in 1851 with the signing of the [[Treaty of Mendota]] and the [[Treaty of Traverse des Sioux]].<ref name="mendota">{{cite web |url=http://usdakotawar.org/history/treaty-mendota |title=Treaty of Mendota |date=January 29, 2013 |publisher=[[Minnesota Historical Society]] |access-date=August 25, 2019 |archive-date=August 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825212352/http://usdakotawar.org/history/treaty-mendota |url-status=live }}</ref> The Treaty of Mendota was signed near Pilot Knob on the south bank of the [[Minnesota River]] and within sight of [[Fort Snelling]]. The treaty stipulated that the Mdewakanton and Wahpekute bands were to receive US$1,410,000 in return for relocating to the [[Lower Sioux Agency]] on the [[Minnesota River]] near present-day [[Morton, Minnesota]] along with giving up their rights to a significant portion of southern Minnesota.<ref name="mendota"/> In the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux, the Sisseton and Wahpeton bands of the Dakota ceded 21 million acres for $1,665,000, or about 7.5 cents an acre.<ref name="mntreaties"/> However, the American government kept more than 80% of the funds with only the interest (5% for 50 years) being paid to the Dakota.<ref name="mntreaties"/>
The U.S. set aside two reservations for the Sioux along the [[Minnesota River]], each about {{convert|20|mi|km|-1}} wide and {{convert|70|mi|km|-1}} long. Later the government declared these were intended to be temporary, in an effort to force the Sioux out of Minnesota.<ref name="mntreaties"/> The [[Upper Sioux Agency]] for the Sisseton and Wahpeton bands was established near [[Granite Falls, Minnesota]], while the [[Lower Sioux Agency]] for the Mdewakanton and Wahpekute bands was established about thirty miles downstream near what developed as [[Redwood Falls, Minnesota]]. The Upper Sioux were not satisfied with their reservation because of low food supplies, but as it included several of their old villages, they agreed to stay. The Lower Sioux were displaced from their traditional woodlands and were dissatisfied with their new territory of mostly prairie.
The U.S. intended the treaties to encourage the Sioux to convert from their nomadic hunting lifestyle into more European-American settled farming, offering them compensation in the transition. By 1858, the Dakota only had a small strip of land along the Minnesota River, with no access to their traditional hunting grounds.<ref name="mntreaties"/> They had to rely on treaty payments for their survival, which were often late.<ref name="mntreaties"/> The forced change in lifestyle and the much lower than expected payments from the federal government caused economic suffering and increased social tensions within the tribes. By 1862, many Dakota were starving and tensions erupted in the [[Dakota War of 1862]].<ref name="mntreaties"/>
===Dakota War of 1862 and the Dakota diaspora===
{{Main|Dakota War of 1862}}
[[File:Little Crow, Leader of the Sioux in the Minnesota Massacre, 1863.png|thumb|[[Little Crow]], leader of the Mdewakanton during the 1862 Dakota War, c. 1863]]
By 1862, shortly after a failed crop the year before and a winter starvation, the federal payment was late. The local traders refused to issue any credit to the Dakota. One trader, [[Andrew Myrick]], went so far as to say, "If they're hungry, let them eat grass."<ref>{{cite book |last=Dillon |first=Richard |title=North American Indian Wars |publisher=Booksales |location=City |year=1993 |isbn=1-55521-951-9 |page=126}}</ref>
On August 16, 1862, the treaty payments to the eastern Dakota arrived in [[St. Paul, Minnesota]], and were brought to [[Fort Ridgely]] the next day. However, they arrived too late to prevent the war. On August 17, 1862, the Dakota War began when a few Santee men murdered a white farmer and most of his family. They inspired further attacks on white settlements along the [[Minnesota River]]. On August 18, 1862, [[Little Crow]] of the Mdewakanton band led a group that attacked the [[Lower Sioux Agency]] (or Redwood Agency) and trading post located there. Later, settlers found Myrick among the dead with his mouth stuffed full of grass.<ref>{{cite news |last2=Post |first2=Tim |first1=Mark |last1=Steil |title=Let them eat grass |date=2002-09-26 |url=http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/200209/23_steilm_1862-m/part2.shtml |work=Minnesota Public Radio |access-date=2011-09-21 |archive-date=January 28, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128183248/http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/200209/23_steilm_1862-m/part2.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Many of the upper Dakota (Sisseton and Wahpeton) wanted no part in the attacks<ref>{{Cite book|title=North country: the making of Minnesota|author=Wingerd, Mary Lethert|date=2010|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|others=Delegard, Kirsten.|isbn=9780816673353|location=Minneapolis|oclc=670429639}}</ref><ref name="TAL">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thisamericanlife.org/479/transcript|title=479: Little War on the Prairie|date=2018-04-15|website=This American Life|access-date=2018-12-06|archive-date=August 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829104658/https://www.thisamericanlife.org/479/transcript|url-status=live}}</ref> with the majority of the 4,000 members of the Sisseton and Wahpeton opposed to the war. Thus their bands did not participate in the early killings.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.famous-trials.com/dakotaconflict/1525-dak-account|title=The Dakota Conflict (Sioux Uprsing) Trials of 1862|last=Linder|first=Douglas|website=www.famous-trials.com|access-date=2018-12-06|archive-date=August 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829104703/https://www.famous-trials.com/dakotaconflict/1525-dak-account|url-status=live}}</ref> Historian Mary Wingerd has stated that it is "a complete myth that all the Dakota people went to war against the United States" and that it was rather "a faction that went on the offensive".<ref name="TAL" />
Most of Little Crow's men surrendered shortly after the [[Battle of Wood Lake]] at [[Surrender at Camp Release|Camp Release]] on September 26, 1862. Little Crow was forced to retreat sometime in September 1862. He stayed briefly in [[Canada]] but soon returned to the western Minnesota. He was killed on July 3, 1863, near [[Hutchinson, Minnesota]] while gathering [[Raspberry|raspberries]] with his teenage son. The pair had wandered onto the land of a settler Nathan Lamson, who shot at them to collect bounties. Once it was discovered that the body was of Little Crow, his [[skull]] and scalp were put on display by the [[Minnesota Historical Society]] in St. Paul, Minnesota. The State held the trophies until 1971 when it returned the remains to Little Crow's grandson. For killing Little Crow the state increased the bounty to $500 when it paid Lamson.
[[File:Execution of 38 Sioux Indians at Mankato Minnesota 1862.jpg|thumb|left|Drawing of the mass hanging of Dakota in [[Mankato, Minnesota]]]]
On November 5, 1862, a [[military tribunal]] found 303 mostly Mdewakanton tribesmen guilty of [[rape]], [[murder]] and [[wikt:atrocity|atrocities]] of hundreds of Minnesota settlers. They were sentenced to be hanged. The men had no attorneys or defense witnesses, and many were convicted in less than five minutes.<ref name="time life">{{cite book | title = War for the Plains | publisher = Time-Life Books | year = 1994 | isbn = 0-8094-9445-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/warforplains00time }}</ref> President [[Abraham Lincoln]] commuted the death sentences of 284 of the warriors, while signing off on the hanging of 38 Santee men on December 26, 1862, in [[Mankato, Minnesota]]. It was the largest mass-execution in U.S. history, on U.S. soil.<ref>{{cite news |last2=Post |first2=Tim |first1=Mark |last1=Steil |title=Execution and expulsion |date=2002-09-26 |url=http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/200209/23_steilm_1862-m/part5.shtml |work=Minnesota Public Radio |access-date=2011-10-02 |archive-date=January 27, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127205029/http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/200209/23_steilm_1862-m/part5.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> The men remanded by order of President Lincoln were sent to a prison in [[Iowa]], where more than half died.<ref name="time life"/>
Afterwards, the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] annulled all treaty agreements with the eastern Dakota and expelled the eastern Dakota with the Forfeiture Act of February 16, 1863, meaning all lands held by the eastern Dakota, and all annuities due to them, were forfeited to the U.S. government.<ref name="Gibbon"/><ref name="MHSaftermath"/> During and after the hostilities, the majority of eastern Dakota fled Minnesota for the [[Dakota territory]] or [[Canada]]. Some settled in the [[James River (Dakotas)|James River]] Valley in a short-lived reservation before being forced to move to [[Crow Creek Reservation]] on the east bank of the [[Missouri River]].<ref name="time life"/> There were as few as 50 eastern Dakota left in Minnesota by 1867.<ref name="Gibbon"/> Many had fled to the [[Santee Sioux Reservation]] in Nebraska (created 1863), the [[Flandreau Indian Reservation|Flandreau Reservation]] (created 1869 from members who left the Santee Reservation), the [[Lake Traverse Indian Reservation|Lake Traverse]] and [[Spirit Lake Tribe|Spirit Lake]] Reservations (both created 1867).<ref name="MHSaftermath">{{cite web |url=https://usdakotawar.org/history/aftermath |title=Aftermath / U.S-Dakota War of 1862 |date=July 3, 2012 |publisher=Minnesota Historical Society |access-date=2019-08-29 |archive-date=August 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829065835/https://usdakotawar.org/history/aftermath |url-status=live }}</ref> Those who fled to Canada throughout the 1870s now have descendants residing on nine small Dakota Reserves, five of which are located in [[Manitoba]] ([[Sioux Valley Dakota Nation|Sioux Valley]], [[Dakota Plains First Nation|Dakota Plain]], [[Portage la Prairie|Dakota Tipi]], [[Birdtail Sioux First Nation|Birdtail Creek]], and [[Canupawakpa Dakota First Nation|Canupawakpa Dakota]]) and the remaining four ([[Fort Qu'Appelle|Standing Buffalo]], [[Whitecap Dakota First Nation|White Cap]], Round Plain {{IPA|dak|wahpeton|}}, and Wood Mountain) in [[Saskatchewan]]. A few Dakota joined the Yanktonai and moved further west to join with the Lakota bands to continue their struggle against the United States military, later settling on the [[Fort Peck Indian Reservation|Fort Peck Reservation]] in Montana.<ref name="time life"/>
===Westward expansion of the Lakota===
{{See also|Lakota people}}
Prior to the 1650s, the {{Lang|dak|Thítȟuŋwaŋ}} division of the {{Lang|dak|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ}} known as the Lakota was noted as being located east of the Red River,<ref name="NDstudiesLakota">{{cite web |url=https://www.ndstudies.gov/gr8/content/unit-ii-time-transformation-1201-1860/lesson-2-making-living/topic-2-horses-return/section-2-lakota-horses |title=Lakota Horses |work=North Dakota Studies |publisher=State Historical Society of North Dakota |access-date=2019-08-29 |archive-date=April 8, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408043057/https://www.ndstudies.gov/gr8/content/unit-ii-time-transformation-1201-1860/lesson-2-making-living/topic-2-horses-return/section-2-lakota-horses |url-status=live }}</ref> and living on the fringes of the prairies and woods of the prairies of southern Minnesota and the eastern Dakotas by at least 1680.<ref name="Gibbon"/> According to Baptiste Good's [[winter counts|winter count]], the Lakota had horses by 1700.<ref name="NDstudiesLakota"/> While the Dakota continued a subsistence cycle of corn, wild rice and hunting woodland animals, the Lakota increasing became reliant on bison for meat and its by-products (housing, clothing, tools) as they expanded their territory westward with the arrival of the horse.<ref name="Gibbon"/> After their adoption of [[horse culture]], Lakota society centered on the [[American Bison|buffalo]] hunt on horseback.
[[File:Tableau 31 Indians hunting the bison by Karl Bodmer.jpg|thumb|Illustration of ''Indians hunting the bison'' by [[Karl Bodmer]]]]
By the 19th century, the typical year of the Lakota was a [[buffalo hunting|communal buffalo hunt]] as early in spring as their horses had recovered from the rigors of the winter. In June and July, the scattered bands of the tribes gathered together into large encampments, which included ceremonies such as the [[Sun Dance]]. These gatherings afforded leaders to meet to make political decisions, plan movements, arbitrate disputes, and organize and launch raiding expeditions or war parties. In the fall, people split into smaller bands to facilitate hunting to procure meat for the long winter. Between the fall hunt and the onset of winter was a time when Lakota warriors could undertake raiding and warfare. With the coming of winter snows, the Lakota settled into winter camps, where activities of the season, ceremonies and dances as well as trying to ensure adequate winter feed for their horses.<ref>Hyde, George E. ''Red Cloud's Folks: A History of the Oglala Sioux'' Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1937, p. 160; Price, Catherine, ''The Oglala People, 1841–1879'' Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, pp. 13–16</ref>
They began to dominate the prairies east of the Missouri river by the 1720s. At the same time, the Lakota branch split into two major sects, the Saône who moved to the [[Lake Traverse]] area on the South Dakota–North Dakota–Minnesota border, and the Oglála-Sičháŋǧu who occupied the [[James River (Dakotas)|James River]] valley. However, by about 1750 the Saône had moved to the east bank of the [[Missouri River]], followed 10 years later by the Oglála and Brulé (Sičháŋǧu). By 1750, they had crossed the Missouri River and encountered Lewis and Clark in 1804. Initial United States contact with the Lakota during the [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] of 1804–1806 was marked by a standoff. Lakota bands refused to allow the explorers to continue upstream, and the expedition prepared for battle, which never came.<ref>''The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition'', University of Nebraska.</ref> In 1776, the Lakota defeated the Cheyenne for the [[Black Hills]], who had earlier taken the region from the [[Kiowa]].<ref name="cheyenne"/> The Cheyenne then moved west to the [[Powder River country]],<ref name="cheyenne"/> and the Lakota made the Black Hills their home.
As their territory expanded, so did the number of rival groups they encountered. They secured an alliance with the Northern [[Cheyenne]] and Northern [[Arapaho]] by the 1820s as intertribal warfare on the plains increased amongst the tribes for access to the dwindling population of buffalo.<ref name="Gibbon"/> The alliance fought the [[Mandan]], [[Hidatsa]] and [[Arikara]] for control of the [[Missouri River]] in North Dakota.<ref name="Gibbon"/> By the 1840s, their territory expanded to the Powder River country in Montana, in which they fought with the Crow. Their victories over these tribes during this time period were aided by the fact those tribes were decimated by European diseases. Most of the Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara were killed by smallpox and almost half the population of the Crow were killed due to smallpox, cholera and other diseases.<ref name="Gibbon"/> In 1843, the southern Lakotas attacked Pawnee Chief Blue Coat's village near the [[Loup River|Loup]] in Nebraska, killing many and burning half of the earth lodges,<ref>Jensen, Richard E.: The Pawnee Mission, 1834–1846. ''Nebraska History'', Vol. 75, No. 4 (1994), pp. 301–310, p. 307, column III.</ref> and 30 years later, the Lakota again inflicted a blow so severe on the Pawnee during the [[Massacre Canyon]] battle near Republican River.<ref>Riley, Paul D.: The Battle of Massacre Canyon. Nebraska History, Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221–249.</ref> By the 1850s, the Lakota were known as the most powerful tribe on the Plains.<ref name="Gibbon"/>
===Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851===
{{Main|Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851|Indian Peace Commission|Red Cloud's War}}
[[File:Sioux-treaty-lands.png|thumb|The Lands of the 1851 Ft. Laramie Treaty]]
The [[Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851]] was signed on September 17, 1851, between U.S. treaty commissioners and representatives of the [[Cheyenne]], Sioux, [[Arapaho]], [[Crow people|Crow]], [[Assiniboine people|Assiniboine]], [[Mandan]], [[Hidatsa]], and [[Arikara]] Nations. The treaty was an agreement between nine more or less independent parties. The treaty set forth traditional territorial claims of the tribes as among themselves.<ref>Paragraph 69, [http://facweb.furman.edu/~benson/docs/peace.htm Report to The President By The Indian Peace Commission] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190913000503/http://facweb.furman.edu/~benson/docs/peace.htm |date=September 13, 2019 }}, January 7, 1868</ref> The United States acknowledged that all the land covered by the treaty was Indian territory and did not claim any part of it. The boundaries agreed to in the Fort Laramie treaty of 1851 were used to settle a number of claims cases in the 20th century.<ref>See Meyer, Roy W.: The Village Indians of the Upper Missouri. The Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras. Lincoln and London, 1977, p. 186. Sutton, Imre (Ed.): Irredeemable America. The Indians Estate and Land Claims. Albuquerque, 1985.</ref> The tribes guaranteed safe passage for [[settler]]s on the [[Oregon Trail]] and allowed roads and forts to be built in their territories in return for promises of an annuity in the amount of fifty thousand dollars for fifty years. The treaty should also "make an effective and lasting peace" among the eight tribes, each of them often at odds with a number of the others.<ref name="digital.library.okstate.edu">Kappler, Charles J.: Indian Affairs. Laws and Treaties. Washington, 1904. Vol. 2, p. 594. http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/sio0594.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812163225/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/sio0594.htm |date=2014-08-12 }}</ref>
The treaty was broken almost immediately after its inception by the Lakota and Cheyenne attacking the Crow over the next two years.<ref name=Michno>{{cite web|last=Michno|first=Gregory|title=The Indian Trail of Broken Treaties|year=2006|publisher=Wild West|page=40|quote=With the treaty duly agreed to and signed, the Lakotas promptly went north, and over the next two years, attacked the Crows, invaded their lands in what became Wyoming and Montana, moved in, and drove them out. The Cheyenne joined in the attacks in 1853.|url=http://studythepast.com/378_spring11/materials/broken_treaties.pdf|access-date=August 29, 2019|archive-date=September 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920052035/http://studythepast.com/378_spring11/materials/broken_treaties.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1858, the failure of the United States to prevent the mass immigration of miners and settlers into Colorado during the [[Pike's Peak Gold Rush]], also did not help matters. They took over Indian lands in order to mine them, "against the protests of the Indians,"<ref name="par 35"/> and founded towns, started farms, and improved roads. Such immigrants competed with the tribes for game and water, straining limited resources and resulting in conflicts with the emigrants. The U.S. government did not enforce the treaty to keep out the immigrants.<ref name="par 35">Paragraph 35 [http://facweb.furman.edu/~benson/docs/peace.htm Report to the President by the Indian Peace Commission, January 7, 1878] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190913000503/http://facweb.furman.edu/~benson/docs/peace.htm |date=September 13, 2019 }}</ref>
The situation escalated with the [[Grattan massacre|Grattan affair]] in 1854 when a detachment of U.S. soldiers illegally entered a Sioux encampment to arrest those accused of stealing a cow, and in the process sparked a battle in which Chief Conquering Bear was killed.<ref>See e.g. Bettelyoun, Susan Bordeaux and Josephine Waggoner: With My Own Eyes. A Lakota Woman Tells Her People's History. Lincoln and London, 1998, pp. 53–54. Fowler, Loretta: Arapaho and Cheyenne Perspectives. From the 1851 Treaty to the Sand Creek Massacre. ''American Indian Quarterly'', Fall 2015, Vol. 39, No. 4, pp. 364–390, p. 367.</ref>
Though intertribal fighting had existed before the arrival of white settlers, some of the post-treaty intertribal fighting can be attributed to mass killings of bison by white settlers and government agents. The U.S. Army did not enforce treaty regulations and allowed hunters onto Native land to slaughter buffalo, providing protection and sometimes ammunition.<ref>Andrew C. Isenberg, The Destruction of the Bison: An Environmental History, 1750–1920 Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 127</ref> One hundred thousand buffalo were killed each year until they were on the verge of extinction, which threatened the tribes' subsistence. These mass killings affected all tribes thus the tribes were forced onto each other's hunting grounds, where fighting broke out.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2016/05/the-buffalo-killers/482349 |title=J. Weston Phippen, 'Kill Every Buffalo You Can! Every Buffalo Dead Is an Indian Gone', ''The Atlantic'', May 13, 2016 |website=[[The Atlantic]] |date=May 13, 2016 |access-date=August 29, 2019 |archive-date=August 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829091517/https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2016/05/the-buffalo-killers/482349/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Carolyn Merchant, American Environmental History: An Introduction, Columbia University Press, 2007, p.20</ref><ref>John C. Ewers, Intertribal Warfare as the Precursor of Indian-White Warfare on the Northern Great Plains, The Western Historical Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 4 (Oct., 1975), pp. 397–410</ref>
On July 20, 1867, an [[act of Congress]] created the [[Indian Peace Commission]] "to establish peace with certain hostile Indian tribes".<ref name="report">{{cite web |author1=Indian Peace Commission |title=Report to the President by the Indian Peace Commission |url=http://eweb.furman.edu/~benson/docs/peace.htm |website=[[Furman University]] |date=January 7, 1868 |access-date=August 29, 2019 |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807072929/http://eweb.furman.edu/~benson/docs/peace.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The Indian Peace Commission was generally seen as a failure, and violence had reignited even before it was disbanded in October 1868. Two official reports were submitted to the federal government, ultimately recommending that the U.S. cease recognizing tribes as sovereign nations, refrain from making treaties with them, employ military force against those who refused to relocate to reservations, and move the [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] from the [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]] to the [[United States Department of War|Department of War]]. The system of treaties eventually deteriorated to the point of collapse, and a decade of war followed the commission's work. It was the last major commission of its kind.
From 1866 to 1868, the Lakota fought the [[United States Army]] in the [[Wyoming Territory]] and the [[Montana Territory]] in what is known as [[Red Cloud's War]] (also referred to as the Bozeman War). The war is named after [[Red Cloud]], a prominent Lakota chief who led the war against the United States following encroachment into the area by the [[United States Army|U.S. military]]. The Sioux victory in the war led to their temporarily preserving their control of the Powder River country.<ref name=bury>*{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Dee |title=Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, ch. 6 |publisher=Bantam Books |year=1970 |isbn=0-553-11979-6 |author-link=Dee Brown (writer)|title-link=Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee }}</ref> The war ended with the [[Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)|Treaty of Fort Laramie of 1868]].
===Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868===
{{Main|Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868}}
[[File:Red Cloud's War. Map with battle fields and relevant Indian treaty guaranteed territories.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Map showing the major battles of [[Red Cloud's War]], along with major treaty boundaries. During Red Cloud's War, the Sioux defeated the [[US Army]] on the same plains on which they previously defeated the [[Crow Nation|Crow]]]]
The Treaty of Fort Laramie (also the Sioux Treaty of 1868{{efn|officially the '''Treaty with the Sioux–Brulé, Oglala, Miniconjou, Yanktonai, Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, Cuthead, Two Kettle, Sans Arcs, and Santee–and Arapaho, 1968'''<ref name="good">{{cite book|first=Charles M.|last=Robinson, III|title=A Good Year to Die: The Story of the Great Sioux War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QxR-7Q9t988C|date=September 12, 2012|publisher=[[Random House|Random House Publishing Group]]|isbn=9780307823373|access-date=April 23, 2018}}</ref>}}) was an agreement between the U.S. and the [[Oglala Lakota|Oglala]], [[Miniconjou]], and [[Brulé]] bands of [[Lakota people]], [[Yanktonai Dakota]] and [[Arapaho]] Nation, following the failure of the first Fort Laramie treaty, signed in 1851. It established the [[Great Sioux Reservation]] including ownership of the [[Black Hills]], and set aside additional lands as "unceded Indian territory" in areas of [[South Dakota]], [[Wyoming]], and [[Nebraska]], and possibly [[Montana]].{{efn|depending on the interpretation of [[Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)#Article XVI|article XVI]]}} It established that the US government would hold the authority to punish not only white settlers who committed crimes against the tribes but also tribe members who committed crimes and who were to be delivered to the government rather than face charges in tribal courts. It stipulated that the government would abandon forts along the [[Bozeman Trail]], and included a number of provisions designed to encourage a transition to farming, and move the tribes "closer to the white man's way of life." The treaty protected specified rights of third parties not partaking in the negotiations, and effectively ended [[Red Cloud's War]].
The treaty overall, and in comparison with the 1851 agreement, represented a departure from earlier considerations of tribal customs, and demonstrated instead the government's "more heavy-handed position with regard to tribal nations, and ... desire to assimilate the Sioux into American property arrangements and social customs."<ref name="water">{{cite web|last1=Matson|first1=Laura|title=Treaties & Territory: Resource Struggles and the Legal Foundations of the US/American Indian Relationship|url=http://editions.lib.umn.edu/openrivers/article/treaties-territory/|website=Open Rivers: Rethinking The Mississippi|publisher=[[University of Minnesota Libraries]]|access-date=March 14, 2018|date=2017|archive-date=March 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315070619/http://editions.lib.umn.edu/openrivers/article/treaties-territory/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to one source, "animosities over the treaty arose almost immediately" when a group of Miniconjou were informed they were no longer welcome to trade at Fort Laramie, being south of their newly established territory. This was notwithstanding that the treaty did not make any stipulation that the tribes could not travel outside their land, only that they would not permanently occupy outside land. The only travel expressly forbidden by the treaty was that of white settlers onto the reservation.<ref name="mcchris">{{cite book|first=Douglas C.|last=McChristian|title=Fort Laramie: Military Bastion of the High Plains|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iItiDgAAQBAJ|date=March 13, 2017|publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]]|isbn=9780806158594|access-date=April 23, 2018|archive-date=December 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220223401/https://books.google.com/books?id=iItiDgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>
The government eventually broke the terms of the treaty following the [[Black Hills Gold Rush]] and an [[Black Hills Expedition|expedition into the area]] by [[George Armstrong Custer]] in 1874 and failed to prevent white settlers from moving onto tribal lands. Rising tensions eventually lead again to open conflict in the [[Great Sioux War of 1876]].<ref name="nps2">{{cite web|title=Wyoming: Fort Laramie National Historic Site|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/ftlaramie.htm|website=[[National Park Service]]|access-date=March 9, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310010249/https://www.nps.gov/articles/ftlaramie.htm|archive-date=March 10, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Black Hills Expedition (1874)|url=https://siarchives.si.edu/collections/auth_exp_fbr_eace0102|website=[[Smithsonian Institution Archives]]|access-date=March 9, 2018|archive-date=March 10, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310010408/https://siarchives.si.edu/collections/auth_exp_fbr_eace0102|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="jen">{{cite book|first=Jennifer|last=Viegas|title=The Fort Laramie Treaty, 1868: A Primary Source Examination of the Treaty that Established a Sioux Reservation in the Black Hills of Dakota|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MhDK9sgeSLcC|year=2006|publisher=[[Rosen Publishing|The Rosen Publishing Group]]|isbn=9781404204386|access-date=April 27, 2018}}</ref>{{rp|46}} The 1868 treaty was modified three times by the [[United States Congress|US Congress]] between 1876 and 1889, each time taking more land originally granted, including unilaterally seizing the Black Hills in 1877.<ref name="water"/> The treaty formed the basis of the 1980 [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] case, ''[[United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians]]'', in which the court ruled that tribal lands covered under the treaty had been taken illegally by the US government, and the tribe was owed compensation plus interest. As of 2018, this amounted to more than $1 billion. The Sioux have refused the payment, demanding instead the return of their land.
===Great Sioux War of 1876 and the Wounded Knee Massacre===
{{Main|Great Sioux War of 1876|Wounded Knee Massacre}}
The ongoing raids and battles on the northern Plains that lasted from 1850 to 1890 are collectively known as the [[Sioux Wars]]. Included are the [[Dakota War of 1862]] (1862–1864), [[Red Cloud's War]] (1866–1868) and the [[Great Sioux War of 1876|Black Hills War]] which includes the [[Battle of the Little Bighorn]](1876–1877); the [[Massacre at Wounded Knee]] in 1890 is considered the end of the Sioux wars and the beginning of a new era for Dakota and Lakota people.
[[File:Sioux Indian police lined up on horseback in front of Pine Ridge Agency buildings, Dakota Territory, 08-09-1882 - NARA - 519143.jpg|thumb|Sioux Indian police lined up on horseback in front of Pine Ridge Agency buildings, Dakota Territory, August 9, 1882]]
[[File:Great Sioux Reservation 1888 Map.png|thumb|[[Great Sioux Reservation]], 1888; established by [[Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)]]]]
The [[Great Sioux War of 1876]], also known as the Black Hills War, was a series of battles and negotiations that occurred in 1876 and 1877 between the [[Lakota people|Lakota]], Northern [[Cheyenne]], and the [[United States]]. The cause of the war was the desire of the U.S. government to obtain ownership of the [[Black Hills]]. [[Gold]] had been discovered in the Black Hills and settlers began to encroach onto tribal lands, and the Sioux and Cheyenne refused to cede ownership to the United States.<ref name="cheyenne">{{cite web|last=Liberty|first=Margot|year=2006|url=http://www.friendslittlebighorn.com/cheyenneprimacy.htm|title=Cheyenne Primacy: The Tribes' Perspective As Opposed To That Of The United States Army; A Possible Alternative To "The Great Sioux War Of 1876|publisher=Friends of the Little Bighorn|access-date=January 13, 2008|archive-date=October 31, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031181106/http://www.friendslittlebighorn.com/cheyenneprimacy.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The earliest engagement was the [[Battle of Powder River]], and the final battle was the [[Battle of Wolf Mountain|Wolf Mountain]]. Included are the [[Battle of the Rosebud]], [[Battle of Warbonnet Creek]], [[Battle of Slim Buttes]], [[Battle of Cedar Creek (1876)|Battle of Cedar Creek]], and the [[Dull Knife Fight]].
Among the many battles and skirmishes of the war was the [[Battle of the Little Bighorn]], often known as Custer's Last Stand, the most storied of the many encounters between the U.S. army and mounted [[Plains Indians|Plains tribes]]. The Battle of the Little Bighorn, known to the [[Lakota people|Lakota]] as the Battle of the Greasy Grass<ref>{{cite news|title=The Battle of the Greasy Grass|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/videos/category/history/the-battle-of-the-greasy-grass/?no-ist|access-date=7 December 2014|work=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]|archive-date=April 5, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405165634/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/videos/category/history/the-battle-of-the-greasy-grass/?no-ist|url-status=live}}</ref> and also commonly referred to as Custer's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota, [[Northern Cheyenne]], and [[Arapaho]] tribes and the [[7th Cavalry Regiment]] of the [[United States Army]]. The battle, which resulted in the defeat of US forces, was the most significant action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. It took place on June 25–26, 1876, along the [[Little Bighorn River]] in the [[Crow Indian Reservation]] in southeastern [[Montana Territory]].<ref>Kappler, Charles J (1904): ''Indian Affairs. Laws and Treaties''. Vol. 2. Washington, pp. 1008–1011.</ref>
The fight was an overwhelming victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, who were led by several major war leaders, including [[Crazy Horse]] and [[Gall (Native American leader)|Chief Gall]], and had been inspired by the visions of [[Sitting Bull]]. The US 7th Cavalry, a force of 700 men, suffered a major defeat while under the command of [[Lieutenant colonel (United States)|Lieutenant Colonel]] [[George Armstrong Custer]]. Five of the 7th Cavalry's twelve companies were annihilated and Custer was killed. The total US casualty count included 268 dead and 55 severely wounded (six died later from their wounds),<ref>{{cite book |last=Scott |first=Douglas D |date=2013 |title=Archaeological Perspectives on the Battle of the Little Bighorn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSUA23jOi1sC&pg=PA244 |location=Norman, OK |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |page=244 |isbn=978-0806132921 |display-authors=etal |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117172702/https://books.google.com/books?id=iSUA23jOi1sC&pg=PA244 |archive-date=January 17, 2017 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> including four [[Crow Nation|Crow]] scouts and at least two [[Arikara]] scouts. The [[Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument]] honors those who fought on both sides. That victory notwithstanding, the U.S. leveraged national resources to force the tribes to surrender, primarily by attacking and destroying their encampments and property. The Great Sioux War took place under the presidencies of [[Ulysses S. Grant]] and [[Rutherford B. Hayes]]. The Agreement of 1877 ({{USStat|19|254}}, enacted February 28, 1877) officially [[annexation|annexed]] Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations.
[[File:Woundedknee1891.jpg|thumb|right|Mass grave for the dead Lakota after massacre of Wounded Knee.]]
The [[Wounded Knee Massacre]] was the last major armed conflict between the Lakota and the United States. It was described as a [[wikt:massacre|massacre]] by General [[Nelson A. Miles]] in a letter to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.<ref>''{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120117171202/http://www.dreamscape.com/morgana/wkmiles.htm Letter: General Nelson A. Miles to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs]}}'', March 13, 1917.</ref> On December 29, 1890, five hundred troops of the [[7th Cavalry Regiment]], supported by four [[Hotchkiss gun]]s (a lightweight [[artillery]] piece capable of rapid fire), surrounded an encampment of the Lakota bands of the Miniconjou and Hunkpapa<ref>{{cite web |last=Liggett |first=Lorie |title=Wounded Knee Massacre – An Introduction |publisher=Bowling Green State University |year=1998 |url=http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/acs/1890s/woundedknee/WKIntro.html |access-date=2007-03-02 |archive-date=December 5, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205184809/http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/acs/1890s/woundedknee/WKIntro.html |url-status=live }}</ref> with orders to escort them to the railroad for transport to [[Omaha, Nebraska]]. By the time it was over, 25 troopers and more than 150 Lakota Sioux lay dead, including men, women, and children. It remains unknown which side was responsible for the first shot; some of the soldiers are believed to have been the victims of "[[friendly fire]]" because the shooting took place at point-blank range in chaotic conditions.<ref>{{cite web |last=Strom |first=Karen|author-link=Karen Strom |title=The Massacre at Wounded Knee |publisher=hanksville.org |year=1995 |url=http://www.hanksville.org/daniel/lakota/Wounded_Knee.html |access-date=August 11, 2007 |archive-date=November 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127012545/http://www.hanksville.org/daniel/lakota/Wounded_Knee.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, many of whom may have died from [[hypothermia]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_AkrDQAAQBAJ&q=wounded%20knee%20hypothermia&pg=PA334|title=Black Elk: The Life of an American Visionary|last=Jackson|first=Joe|date=2016-10-25|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=9780374253301|language=en}}</ref>
Following a three-day blizzard, the military hired civilians to bury the dead Lakota. The burial party found the deceased frozen; they were gathered up and placed in a mass grave on a hill overlooking the encampment from which some of the fire from the Hotchkiss guns originated. It was reported that four infants were found alive, wrapped in their deceased mothers' shawls. In all, 84 men, 44 women, and 18 children reportedly died on the field, while at least seven Lakota were mortally wounded.<ref name="Josephy 1990">Josephy, Jr., Alvin M., Trudy Thomas, and Jeanne Eder. Wounded Knee: Lest We Forget. Billings, Montana: Buffalo Bill Historical Center, 1990.</ref>
For this 1890 offensive, the American army awarded twenty [[Medal of Honor|Medals of Honor]], its highest commendation. Contemporary Native American activists have urged the medals to be withdrawn, calling them "medals of dishonor". According to Lakota William Thunder Hawk, "The Medal of Honor is meant to reward soldiers who act heroically. But at Wounded Knee, they didn't show heroism; they showed cruelty". In 2001, the [[National Congress of American Indians]] passed two resolutions condemning the Medals of Honor awards and called on the U.S. government to rescind them.<ref name="Congress">{{cite web |url=http://www.footnote.com/page/1299_lakotawounded_knee_a_campaign_to/ |title=Lakota~WOUNDED KNEE: A Campaign to Rescind Medals: story, pictures and information |publisher=Footnote.com |access-date=August 17, 2011 |archive-date=December 31, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231002027/http://www.fold3.com/page/1299_lakotawounded_knee_a_campaign_to/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
===1890–1920s: Assimilation era===
====Land allotment====
[[Image:Siouxreservationmap.png|thumb|350px|Map showing the Great Sioux Reservation and current reservations in North and South Dakota]]
By the 1880s, the Dakota and Lakota tribes were fragmented onto reservations which diminished in size over time. They lost hundreds of thousands of acres by the 1920s. In 1887, the [[United States Congress]] passed the [[General Allotment Act]] (Dawes Act), which began the [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|assimilation]] of Dakota and Lakota people by forcing them to give up their traditional way of life. The Dawes Act ended traditional systems of [[Land tenure#Traditional land tenure|land tenure]], forcing tribes to adapt government-imposed systems of [[private property]] and to "assume a [[Capitalism|capitalist]] and proprietary relationship with property" that did not previously exist.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=The Settlement of America: An Encyclopedia of Westward Expansion from Jamestown to the Closing of the Frontier|last=Blansett|first=Kent|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=9780765619846|editor-last=Crutchfield|editor-first=James A.|pages=161–162|editor-last2=Moutlon|editor-first2=Candy|editor-last3=Del Bene|editor-first3=Terry}}</ref> In 1889, North Dakota and South Dakota were holding statehood conventions and demanded reduction of the [[Great Sioux Reservation]], which was established by the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868.<ref name="Authors 2018">{{cite journal | title=To divide a portion of the reservation of the Sioux Nation of Indians in Dakota into separate reservations | journal=American Indian and Alaskan Native Documents in the Congressional Serial Set: 1817–1899 | date=February 1, 2018 | url=https://digitalcommons.law.ou.edu/indianserialset/3645 | access-date=April 16, 2020 | archive-date=May 24, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524122443/https://digitalcommons.law.ou.edu/indianserialset/3645/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Just months before those states were admitted to the [[United States|Union]] in November 1889, Congress had passed an act which partitioned the Great Sioux Reservation into five smaller reservations,.<ref name="Authors 2018"/> Tribal leaders such as [[John Grass]], [[Gall (Native American leader)|Gall]], and [[Sitting Bull]] opposed the bill, which created the following five reservations:
* [[Standing Rock Reservation]] with its agency at [[Fort Yates]];
* [[Cheyenne River Indian Reservation|Cheyenne River Reservation]], with its agency on the Missouri River near the Cheyenne River confluence (later moved to [[Eagle Butte, South Dakota|Eagle Butte]] following the construction of [[Oahe Dam]]);
* [[Lower Brule Indian Reservation]], with its agency near [[Fort Thompson, South Dakota|Fort Thompson]];
* [[Rosebud Indian Reservation]], with its agency near [[Mission, South Dakota]]; and
* [[Pine Ridge Reservation]] ([[Oglala Lakota]]), with its agency at [[Pine Ridge, South Dakota]] near the [[Nebraska]] border.
After the boundaries of these five reservations was established, the government opened up approximately {{convert|9|e6acre|km2}}, one-half of the former Great Sioux Reservation, for public purchase for ranching and homesteading.<ref name="Gonzalez 1999 p.257">{{cite book | last=Gonzalez | first=Mario | title=The politics of hallowed ground: Wounded Knee and the struggle for Indian sovereignty | publisher=University of Illinois Press | location=Urbana | year=1999 | isbn=0-252-02354-4 | oclc=36621712 | page=257}}</ref> Much of the area was not homesteaded until the 1910s, after the [[Enlarged Homestead Act]] increased allocations to {{convert|320|acre|km2}} for "semi-arid land".<ref>Raban, Bad Land, p. 23</ref>
====Boarding schools====
{{See also|American Indian boarding schools|Carlisle Indian Industrial School}}
[[Image:Children and chickens in front of chicken house - NARA - 285861.jpg|thumb|350px|Children with their chickens, Standing Rock Agency (1947)]]
[[Image:Basketball team - NARA - 285801.jpg|thumb|350px|[[Solen, North Dakota|Solen]] basketball team, Standing Rock Agency (1947)]]
Besides the loss of land, the Dawes Act also "outlawed Native American culture and established a code of Indian offenses regulating individual behavior according to Euro-American norms of conduct." Any violations of this code were to be "tried in a Court of Indian Offenses on each reservation." Included with the Dawes Act were "funds to instruct Native Americans in Euro-American patterns of thought and behavior through Indian Service schools" which forced many of the tribes into sending their children to [[American Indian boarding schools|boarding schools]].
Boarding schools were intended to "kill the Indian to save the man", which meant the destruction of Dakota and Lakota societies: children were taken away from their families, their traditional culture and kinship roles.<ref name="Little 2017">{{cite web | last=Little | first=Becky | title=How Boarding Schools Tried to 'Kill the Indian' Through Assimilation | website=HISTORY | date=August 16, 2017 | url=https://www.history.com/news/how-boarding-schools-tried-to-kill-the-indian-through-assimilation | access-date=April 16, 2020 | archive-date=April 14, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414165155/https://www.history.com/news/how-boarding-schools-tried-to-kill-the-indian-through-assimilation | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ND studies boarding schools">{{cite web | title=Section 5: Indian Boarding Schools | website=North Dakota Studies | url=https://www.ndstudies.gov/gr8/content/unit-iii-waves-development-1861-1920/lesson-3-building-communities/topic-2-schools/section-5-indian-boarding-schools | access-date=April 16, 2020 | archive-date=April 29, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429074053/https://www.ndstudies.gov/gr8/content/unit-iii-waves-development-1861-1920/lesson-3-building-communities/topic-2-schools/section-5-indian-boarding-schools | url-status=live }}</ref> They were dressed in Eurocentric clothing, given English names, had their hair cut and were forbidden to speak their languages.<ref name="ND studies boarding schools"/><ref name="The U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 2008">{{cite web | title=Indian Boarding Schools | website=The U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 | date=November 4, 2008 | url=https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/newcomers-us-government-military-federal-acts-policy/indian-boarding-schools | access-date=April 16, 2020 | archive-date=May 21, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521053817/http://www.usdakotawar.org/history/newcomers-us-government-military-federal-acts-policy/indian-boarding-schools | url-status=live }}</ref> Their religions and ceremonies were also outlawed and forbidden.<ref name="The U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 2008"/> The goal was to teach academic studies in English, vocational skills suited to Euro-American society such as farming in order to replace traditional lifeways.<ref name="ND studies boarding schools"/> These schools were overcrowded and had poor sanitary conditions, which led to infectious diseases and students running away or dying while at the schools.<ref name="The U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 2008"/><ref name="Little 2017"/> The schools achieved mixed outcomes of traumatic experiences for many while others such as [[Charles Eastman]], [[Ella Cara Deloria]], [[Luther Standing Bear]] and [[Zitkala-Sa]] were able to use the education to their advantage to help their people.
===1930s–1960s: Reorganization Act and Relocation Act===
The [[Indian Reorganization Act]] (IRA) sought to overturn many of the policies of the Dawes Act by reversing the traditional goal of cultural assimilation of the tribes into American society. The IRA "ended land allotment, prohibited non-consensual land seizure, recognized tribal governments, encouraged the writing of tribal constitutions, and empowered Native people to manage their own resources".<ref name="MNopedia 2020">{{cite web | title=Indian Reorganization Act in Minnesota | website=MNopedia | date=April 16, 2020 | url=https://www.mnopedia.org/thing/indian-reorganization-act-minnesota | access-date=April 16, 2020 | archive-date=July 21, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721001711/https://www.mnopedia.org/thing/indian-reorganization-act-minnesota | url-status=live }}</ref> Between 1934 and 1945, the tribes voted on their government constitutions. The [[Yankton Sioux Tribe]] is the only tribe in South Dakota that did not comply with the IRA and chose to keep its traditional government, whose constitution was ratified in 1891.<ref name="Pritzker 2000 p.341">{{cite book | last=Pritzker | first=Barry | title=A Native American encyclopedia: history, culture, and peoples | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Oxford New York | year=2000 | isbn=978-0-19-513877-1 | oclc=42683042 | page=341}}</ref> The [[Spirit Lake Tribe]] and [[Standing Rock Indian Reservation|Standing Rock Tribe]] also voted against the IRA.<ref name="ND studies IRA">{{cite web | title=Section 3: Tribal Governments | website=North Dakota Studies | url=https://www.ndstudies.gov/gr8/content/unit-iv-modern-north-dakota-1921-present/lesson-4-alliances-and-conflicts/topic-1-indian-citizenship-and-indian-reorganization-act/section-3-tribal-governments | language=de | access-date=April 16, 2020 | archive-date=April 29, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429065251/https://www.ndstudies.gov/gr8/content/unit-iv-modern-north-dakota-1921-present/lesson-4-alliances-and-conflicts/topic-1-indian-citizenship-and-indian-reorganization-act/section-3-tribal-governments | url-status=live }}</ref> Because their constitution are not written under the authority of the IRA, they had to established tribal corporations which are managed separately from the tribal government in order to apply for loans.<ref name="ND studies IRA"/> In Minnesota, the IRA recognized the Dakota tribes as communities, allowing them to reestablish their reservations and to repurchase land lost during the [[Dakota War of 1862]]. The Lower Sioux and Prairie Island reservations formed constitutions in 1936, the Upper Sioux formed as a community in 1938 and wrote a constitution in 1995, and the Shakopee Mdewakanton officially formed an IRA government in 1969.<ref name="MNopedia 2020"/>
Despite the IRA giving more land rights to the tribes, the federal government seized thousands of acres of land through the [[Flood Control Act of 1944]] by creating the [[Oahe Dam]]. As a result of the dam's construction the [[Cheyenne River Indian Reservation]] lost {{convert|150000|acre|abbr=off|lk=off}} bringing it down to {{convert|2850000|acre}} today. [[Standing Rock Reservation]] lost {{convert|55993|acre}} leaving it with {{convert|2300000|acre}}. Much of the land was taken by eminent domain claims made by the Bureau of Reclamation. Over and above the [[land consumption|land loss]], most of the reservations' prime agricultural land was included in the loss. Most of the land was unable to be harvested (to allow the trees to be cut down for wood) before the land was flooded over with water.<ref>{{Cite book| last=Carrels | first=Peter| year=1999 | title=Uphill Against Water | publisher=University of Nebraska Press | isbn=0-8032-6397-X}}</ref> One visitor to the reservations later asked why there were so few older Indians on the reservations and was told that "the old people had died of heartache" after the construction of the dam and the loss of the reservations' land.<ref name=bord2>{{cite web |url=http://www.dickshovel.com/bord2.html |title=The Indians Are Getting Uppity |work=Ilze Choi |publisher=dickshovel.com |access-date=April 5, 2009 |archive-date=February 12, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212173830/http://www.dickshovel.com/bord2.html |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2015, poverty remains a problem for the displaced populations in the Dakotas, who are still seeking compensation for the loss of the towns submerged under Lake Oahe, and the loss of their traditional ways of life.<ref>{{Cite web|title = No Man's Land: The Last Tribes of the Plains. As industry closes in, Native Americans fight for dignity and natural resources|url = http://www.msnbc.com/interactives/geography-of-poverty/nw.html|access-date = 2015-09-28|last = Lee|first = Trymaine|website = MSNBC – Geography of Poverty Northwest|archive-date = May 18, 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200518175101/http://www.msnbc.com/interactives/geography-of-poverty/nw.html|url-status = live}}</ref>
The [[Indian Relocation Act of 1956]] encouraged many tribal members to leave their reservation homes for cities. Some tribes had a dramatic loss of population: the [[Yankton Sioux Tribe]] fell to only 1,000 members living on the reservation in the 1950s; the [[Santee Sioux Reservation]] lost 60 percent of its population (by 1962, only 2,999, mostly elderly people remained).<ref name="Gibbon"/>
Roosevelt's [[New Deal]] and Johnson's [[War on poverty]] brought new schools, roads, health clinics, and housing to the reservations.<ref name="Gibbon"/>
===1970s: Wounded Knee incident===
:{{Main|Wounded Knee incident}}
[[Image:Wounded Knee AIM veterans.jpg|thumb|350px|Wounded Knee AIM veterans (2013)]]
Conflicting political values from "traditionalists" against the new form of government promoted through the [[Indian Reorganization Act]] created long-lasting tensions on the reservations.<ref name="Reinhardt 2007">{{cite book | last=Reinhardt | first=Akim | title=Ruling Pine Ridge: Oglala Lakota politics from the IRA to Wounded Knee | publisher=Texas Tech University Press | location=Lubbock | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-89672-601-7 | oclc=71004236 }}</ref> The accusations of corruption by tribal leaders would lead to the [[Wounded Knee incident]] which began on February 27, 1973, when the town of [[Wounded Knee, South Dakota]] was seized by followers of the [[American Indian Movement]] (AIM). The occupiers controlled the town for 71 days while various state and federal law enforcement agencies such as the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] and the [[United States Marshals Service]] laid siege.
The members of AIM were protesting what they said was the local corrupt government, along with federal issues affecting Indian reservation communities, as well as the lack of justice from border counties. Native Americans from many other communities, primarily urban areas, mobilized to come and join the occupation. The FBI dispatched agents and [[US Marshals]] to cordon off the site. Later a higher-ranking DOJ representative took control of the government's response. Through the resulting siege that lasted for 71 days, twelve people were wounded, including an FBI agent left paralyzed. In April at least two people died of gunfire, after which the Oglala Lakota called an end to the occupation). Additionally, two other people, one of them an African American civil rights activist, [[Ray Robinson (activist)|Ray Robinson]], went missing, and are believed to have been killed during the occupation, though their bodies have never been found.<ref name="Missing Persons of America">{{cite web |url=http://www.missingpersonsofamerica.com/2013/07/ray-robinson-whatever-happened-to-civil.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826161344/http://www.missingpersonsofamerica.com/2013/07/ray-robinson-whatever-happened-to-civil.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 26, 2014 |title=Ray Robinson: Whatever happened to the civil rights activist at Wounded Knee? |work=Missing Persons of America |date=15 July 2014 |access-date=22 August 2014 }}</ref><ref name="The Grio">{{cite web |url=http://thegrio.com/2014/02/20/fbi-confirms-activist-ray-robinson-was-killed-in-south-dakota-in-1973/#s:ray-robinson-widow |title=FBI confirms activist Ray Robinson was killed in South Dakota in 1973 |work=The Grio |first=Dirk |last=Lammers |date=20 February 2014 |access-date=22 August 2014 |archive-date=July 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725045625/https://thegrio.com/2014/02/20/fbi-confirms-activist-ray-robinson-was-killed-in-south-dakota-in-1973/#s:ray-robinson-widow |url-status=live }}</ref> Afterward, 1200 American Indians were arrested. Wounded Knee drew international attention to the plight of American Indians and AIM leaders were tried in a Minnesota federal court. The court dismissed their case on the basis of governmental prosecutorial misconduct.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mnhs.org/library/tips/history_topics/93aim.html |title=American Indian Movement (AIM) |publisher=Minnesota History |access-date=2010-09-26 |archive-date=October 12, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012122552/http://www.mnhs.org/library/tips/history_topics/93aim.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, [[Leonard Peltier]] was convicted of murdering two FBI agents in a June 26, 1975, shooting on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota.
===1980s–present: Self-determination===
After the Wounded Knee Incident, the Dakota and Lakota continued to push for their tribal rights and [[self-determination]].
====Black Hills Land claims====
:{{Main|United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians|Black Hills land claim}}
The Sioux never accepted the legitimacy of the forced deprivation of their Black Hills reservation.<ref>"U.S. v. Sioux Nation" 448 US 371 at 384.</ref> Throughout the 1920s–1950s, they pushed their [[Black Hills land claim]] into federal court. After 60 years of litigation in the Court of Claims, the Indian Claims Commission, the U.S. Congress, the Supreme Court heard the case in 1980 and ruled that the federal government had illegally taken the Black Hills and awarded more than $100 million in reparations to the tribes. Stating that the land was never for sale, the tribes have refused to accept the money which is now over one billion dollars.<ref name="Cutlip 2018">{{cite web | last=Cutlip | first=Kimbra | title=In 1868, Two Nations Made a Treaty, the U.S. Broke It and Plains Indian Tribes are Still Seeking Justice | website=Smithsonian Magazine | date=November 7, 2018 | url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/1868-two-nations-made-treaty-us-broke-it-and-plains-indian-tribes-are-still-seeking-justice-180970741/ | access-date=April 16, 2020 | archive-date=April 22, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422061346/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/1868-two-nations-made-treaty-us-broke-it-and-plains-indian-tribes-are-still-seeking-justice-180970741/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
====Republic of Lakotah====
:{{Main|Republic of Lakotah proposal}}
After the Wounded Knee Incident in 1973, the [[International Indian Treaty Council]] was formed to support grassroots Indigenous struggles for human rights, self-determination and environmental justice through information dissemination, networking, coalition building, advocacy and technical assistance. This influenced activists who declared that they had founded the [[Republic of Lakotah]] in 2007. The Lakota Freedom Delegation, a group of controversial Native American activists, declared on December 19, 2007, the Lakota were withdrawing from all treaties signed with the United States to regain sovereignty over their nation. One of the activists, [[Russell Means]], claimed that the action was legal and cites [[Natural law|natural]], [[International law|international]] and [[Law of the United States|US law]].<ref>[http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iVC1KMTOgwiSoMQyT2LwZc9HyAgA Descendants of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse break away from US] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609092458/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iVC1KMTOgwiSoMQyT2LwZc9HyAgA |date=June 9, 2007 }}, [http://afp.com Agence France-Presse news] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821112631/http://www.afp.com/ |date=2008-08-21 }}</ref> The group considers Lakota to be a [[Westphalian sovereignty|sovereign nation]], although as yet the state is [[Diplomatic recognition|generally unrecognized]]. The proposed borders reclaim thousands of square kilometres of North and South Dakota, Wyoming, Nebraska and Montana.<ref>{{cite news |last=Harlan |first=Bill |publisher=Rapid City Journal |title=Lakota group secedes from U.S. |date=21 December 2007 |url=http://www.rapidcityjournal.com/articles/2007/12/21/news/local/doc476a99630633e335271152.txt |access-date=2007-12-28 |url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090712075945/http://www.rapidcityjournal.com/articles/2007/12/21/news/local/doc476a99630633e335271152.txt |archive-date=12 July 2009 }}</ref> Not all leaders of the Lakota Tribal Governments support or recognize the declaration.
====Foster care system====
Throughout the decades, thousands of Native American children were forcibly removed from their homes and sent to [[American Indian boarding schools|boarding schools]] with a primary objective of assimilating Native American children and youth into Euro-American culture, while at the same time providing a basic education in Euro-American subject matters. Many children lost knowledge of their culture and languages, as well as faced physical and sexual abuse at these schools. In 1978, the government tried to put an end to these boarding schools (and placement into foster families) with the [[Indian Child Welfare Act|Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA)]], which says except in the rarest circumstances, Native American children must be placed with their relatives or tribes. It also says states must do everything it can to keep native families together.
In 2011, the [[Lakota people|Lakota]] made national news when [[National Public Radio|NPR]]'s investigative series called ''Lost Children, Shattered Families'' aired.<ref name="fostercare">{{cite news |last=Laura |first=Sullivan |url=https://www.npr.org/series/141763531/native-foster-care-lost-children-shattered-families/ |title=Native Foster Care: Lost Children, Shattered Families |work=[[NPR]] |date=2011-10-25 |access-date=2018-12-11 |archive-date=April 11, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180411191855/https://www.npr.org/series/141763531/native-foster-care-lost-children-shattered-families |url-status=live }}</ref> It exposed what many critics consider to be the "kidnapping" of Lakota children from their homes by the state of South Dakota's Department of Social Services.<ref name="fostercare"/> The NPR investigation found South Dakota has the most cases which fail to abide by the ICWA. In South Dakota, Native American children make up less than 15 percent of the child population, yet they make up more than half of the children in foster care.<ref name="fostercare"/> The state receives thousands of dollars from the federal government for every child it takes from a family, and in some cases, the state gets even more money if the child is Native American.<ref name="fostercare"/>
Lakota activists Madonna Thunder Hawk and [[Chase Iron Eyes]] worked with the Lakota People's Law Project as they sought to end what they claimed were unlawful seizures of Native American Lakota children in South Dakota and to stop the state practice of placing these children in non-Native homes.<ref name="reuniting">{{cite web |url=https://www.lakotalaw.org/our-campaigns/children-and-families |title=Reuniting Children and Families |publisher=Lakota People's Law Project |access-date=2018-12-12 |archive-date=December 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215224058/https://www.lakotalaw.org/our-campaigns/children-and-families |url-status=live }}</ref> They are currently working to redirect federal funding away from the state of South Dakota's Department of Social Systems to a new tribal foster care programs.<ref name="reuniting"/> In 2015, in response to the investigative reports by NPR, the Lakota People's Law Project as well as the coalition of all nine Lakota/Dakota reservations in South Dakota, the [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] updated the ICWA guidelines to give more strength to tribes to intervene on behalf of the children, stating, "The updated guidelines establish that an Indian child, parent or Indian custodian, or tribe may petition to invalidate an action if the Act or guidelines have been violated, regardless of which party's rights were violated. This approach promotes compliance with ICWA and reflects that ICWA is intended to protect the rights of each of these parties."<ref name="guidelinesupdate">{{cite web |url=https://www.lakotalaw.org/news/2015-02-26/feds-strengthen-icwa-guidelines |title=Feds Strengthen ICWA Guidelines |publisher=Lakota People's Law Project |date=2015-02-26 |access-date=2018-12-12 |archive-date=December 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215223205/https://www.lakotalaw.org/news/2015-02-26/feds-strengthen-icwa-guidelines |url-status=live }}</ref> The new guidelines also not only prevent courts from taking children away based on socioeconomic status but give a strict definition of what is to be considered harmful living conditions.<ref name="guidelinesupdate"/> Previously, the state of South Dakota used "being poor" as harmful.<ref name="guidelinesupdate"/>
==== Protest against the Dakota Access oil pipeline ====
{{Main|Dakota Access Pipeline protests}}
[[File:Poisoning water is genocide - Stand with Standing Rock.jpg|thumb|Demonstration in support of Standing Rock to stop DAPL occurred all over the world throughout 2016 and in March 2017 in Washington, DC]] In the summer of 2016, Sioux Indians and the [[Standing Rock Indian Reservation|Standing Rock Sioux Tribe]] began a protest against construction of the [[Bakken pipeline|Dakota Access oil pipeline]], also known as the Bakken pipeline, which, if completed, is designed to carry [[Hydraulic fracturing|hydrofracked]] crude oil from the [[Bakken Formation|Bakken oil fields]] of North Dakota to the oil storage and transfer hub of [[Patoka, Illinois]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/24/us/occupying-the-prairie-tensions-rise-as-tribes-move-to-block-a-pipeline.html|title=Occupying the Prairie: Tensions Rise as Tribes Move to Block a Pipeline|last=Healy|first=Jack|date=2016-08-23|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2016-08-24|archive-date=March 7, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307095530/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/24/us/occupying-the-prairie-tensions-rise-as-tribes-move-to-block-a-pipeline.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Pipeline transport|pipeline]] travels only half a mile north of the Standing Rock Sioux reservation and is designed to pass underneath the [[Missouri River]] and upstream of the reservation, causing many concerns over the tribe's drinking water safety, environmental protection, and harmful impacts on culture.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/09/08/493061675/more-than-a-year-after-spill-colorados-gold-king-mine-named-superfund-site|title=More Than A Year After Spill, Colorado's Gold King Mine Named Superfund Site|newspaper=NPR|date=September 8, 2016|access-date=2016-09-08|archive-date=February 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203064209/https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/09/08/493061675/more-than-a-year-after-spill-colorados-gold-king-mine-named-superfund-site|url-status=live|last1=Hopkins|first1=Christopher Dean}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.yellowstonepark.com/pipeline-oil-spill-yellowstone-river/|title=Pipeline Spills Oil into Yellowstone River Again|date=2015-01-21|language=en-US|access-date=2016-09-08|archive-date=September 12, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912173446/http://www.yellowstonepark.com/pipeline-oil-spill-yellowstone-river/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Robert T.F. Downes |date=2024-07-09 |title=Natural Dialectics: Māori & Sioux Ecosophy Encounters the Rule of Law |url=https://scholarworks.arcadia.edu/agsjournal/vol9/iss1/2/ |journal=The Journal of International Relations, Peace Studies, and Development |volume=9 |issue=1 |issn=2429-2133}}</ref> The pipeline company claims that the pipeline will provide jobs, reduce American dependence on foreign oil and reduce the price of gas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://daplpipelinefacts.com/dt_articles/what-is-the-benefit-of-the-dakota-acess-pipeline/|title=What is the benefit of the Dakota Access Pipeline? – Dakota Access Pipeline Facts|work=Dakota Access Pipeline Facts|access-date=2018-02-02|language=en-US|archive-date=February 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203064315/https://daplpipelinefacts.com/dt_articles/what-is-the-benefit-of-the-dakota-acess-pipeline/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The conflict sparked a nationwide debate and much news media coverage. Thousands of indigenous and non-indigenous supporters joined the protest, and several camp sites were set up south of the construction zone. The protest was peaceful, and alcohol, drugs and firearms were not allowed at the campsite or the protest site.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.prairiepublic.org/post/dakota-access-pipeline-construction-stopped|title=Dakota Access Pipeline construction stopped|last=Thompson|first=Dave|date=2016-08-18|publisher=news.prairiepublic.org|access-date=August 24, 2016|archive-date=August 21, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821083514/http://news.prairiepublic.org/post/dakota-access-pipeline-construction-stopped|url-status=live}}</ref> On August 23, Standing Rock Sioux Tribe released a list of 87 tribal governments who wrote resolutions, proclamations and letters of support stating their solidarity with Standing Rock and the Sioux people.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2016/08/23/native-nations-rally-support-standing-rock-sioux-165554|title=Native Nations Rally in Support of Standing Rock Sioux|date=2016-08-23|website=Indian Country Today Media Network.com|access-date=2016-08-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825171718/http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2016/08/23/native-nations-rally-support-standing-rock-sioux-165554|archive-date=2016-08-25|url-status=dead}}</ref> Since then, many more Native American organizations, environmental groups and civil rights groups have joined the effort in North Dakota, including the [[Black Lives Matter]] movement, Vermont Senator [[Bernie Sanders]], the 2016 [[Green Party of the United States|Green Party]] presidential candidate [[Jill Stein]] and her running mate [[Ajamu Baraka]], and many more.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/onpolitics/2016/09/07/arrest-warrants-stein-green-party/89965374/|title=Arrest warrants issued for Jill Stein, running mate after N.D. protest|website=[[USA Today]]|access-date=2016-09-08|archive-date=January 9, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109194033/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/onpolitics/2016/09/07/arrest-warrants-stein-green-party/89965374/|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[The Washington Post]]'' called it a "National movement for Native Americans."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/showdown-over-oil-pipeline-becomes-a-national-movement-for-native-americans/2016/09/06/ea0cb042-7167-11e6-8533-6b0b0ded0253_story.html|title=Showdown over oil pipeline becomes a national movement for Native Americans|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=2016-09-08|archive-date=September 8, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908184357/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/showdown-over-oil-pipeline-becomes-a-national-movement-for-native-americans/2016/09/06/ea0cb042-7167-11e6-8533-6b0b0ded0253_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Return of Artifacts ====
In November 2022, 150 sacred artifacts were repatriated to the Lakota Sioux peoples.<ref name="artifacts"/> They were stored for more than a century at the Founders Museum in Barre, Massachusetts.<ref name="artifacts"/> However, these are just a small fraction of circa 870,000 Native American artifacts (including nearly 110,000 human remains) that are still at prestigious colleges, museums and the federal government.<ref name="artifacts">{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/massachusetts-museum-returns-sacred-items-sioux-tribes-rcna55924 |website=NBC News |title=Massachusetts museum returns sacred items to Sioux tribes |date=November 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221107091851/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/massachusetts-museum-returns-sacred-items-sioux-tribes-rcna55924 |archive-date=November 7, 2022}}</ref>
==Language==
{{Main|Sioux language|Lakota language|Dakota language}}
[[File:Chief Bone Necklace-Oglala Lakota-1899 Heyn Photo.jpg|thumb|Chief Bone Necklace, an Oglala Lakota from the [[Pine Ridge Indian Reservation]] (1899)]]
The Sioux comprise three closely related language groups:
# '''[[Dakota language|Eastern Dakota]]''' (also known as Santee-Sisseton or Dakhóta)
#* Santee (Isáŋyáthi: Bdewákhathuŋwaŋ, Waȟpékhute)
#* Sisseton (Sisíthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ)
# '''[[Dakota language|Western Dakota]]''' (or Yankton-Yanktonai or Dakȟóta)
#* Yankton (Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ)
#* Yanktonai (Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna)
# '''[[Lakota language|Lakota]]''' (or Lakȟóta, Teton, Teton Sioux)
The earlier linguistic three-way division of the Sioux language identified ''Lakota'', ''Dakota'', and ''Nakota'' as [[Variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of a single language, where Lakota = Teton, Dakota = Santee-Sisseton and Nakota = Yankton-Yanktonai.<ref name="riggs"/> However, the latest studies<ref name="NLD"/><ref name="PD">{{cite journal |last1=Parks |first1=D. R. |last2=DeMallie |first2=R. J. |year=1992 |title=Sioux, Assiniboine, and Stoney Dialects: a Classification |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |volume=34 |issue=1–4 }}</ref> show that Yankton-Yanktonai never used the autonym ''Nakhóta'', but pronounced their name roughly the same as the Santee (i.e. ''Dakȟóta'').
These later studies identify Assiniboine and Stoney as two separate languages, with Sioux being the third language. Sioux has three similar dialects: Lakota, Western Dakota (Yankton-Yanktonai) and Eastern Dakota (Santee-Sisseton). Assiniboine and Stoney speakers refer to themselves as ''Nakhóta'' or ''Nakhóda''<ref name="NLD"/> (cf. [[Nakota]]).
The term ''Dakota'' has also been applied by [[anthropologists]] and governmental departments to refer to all Sioux groups, resulting in names such as ''Teton Dakota'', ''Santee Dakota'', etc. This was mainly because of the misrepresented translation of the Ottawa word from which ''Sioux'' is derived.<ref name="life and customs"/>
==Ethnic and modern geographical divisions==
[[File:Sioux social structure council fires.jpg|thumb|Santee Dakota, Yankton-Yanktonai and Lakota historic distribution<br>(the map still misnames the Yankton-Yanktonai grouping as [[Nakota]])]]
[[File:Stella Yellow Shirt, Dakota Sioux, with baby, by Heyn Photo, 1899.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Stella Yellow Shirt and her baby (Dakota, 1899)]]
[[File:Sioux-Baby sling.jpg|thumb|Sioux cradleboard]]
[[File:Keeble's family at MOH ceremony.jpg|thumbnail|Family members of U.S. Army Master Sgt. [[Woodrow Wilson Keeble]] attending his Medal of Honor ceremony]]
The Sioux are divided into three ethnic groups, the larger of which are divided into sub-groups, and further branched into bands. The earliest known European record of the Sioux identified them in Minnesota, Iowa, and Wisconsin.<ref name="riggs"/> After the introduction of the horse in the early 18th century, the Sioux dominated larger areas of land—from present-day Central Canada to the [[Platte River]], from Minnesota to the [[Yellowstone River]], including the [[Powder River (Montana)|Powder River]] country.<ref name="dog soldiers"/>
The Sioux maintain many separate tribal governments scattered across several reservations and communities in North America: in the Dakotas, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Montana in the United States; and in [[Manitoba]], and southern [[Saskatchewan]] in Canada. Today, many Sioux also live outside their reservations.
==={{Lang|dak|Isáŋyathi}} (Santee or Eastern Dakota)===
{{anchor|Eastern Dakota}} {{Main|Dakota people}}
In the past, they were a [[woodland]] people who thrived on hunting, fishing, and farming.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thenicc.edu/index.php/en/santee-sioux-nation|title=Santee Sioux Nation History|website=Nebraska Indian Community College|access-date=22 November 2018|archive-date=November 23, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123191205/http://www.thenicc.edu/index.php/en/santee-sioux-nation|url-status=live}}</ref>
Migrations of [[Ojibwe]] from the east in the 17th and 18th centuries, with muskets supplied by the French and British, pushed the Dakota further into Minnesota and west and southward. The US gave the name ''Dakota Territory'' to the northern expanse west of the [[Mississippi River]] and up to its headwaters.<ref name="riggs"/> Today, the Santee live on reservations, reserves, and communities in Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, and Canada. However, after the Dakota war of 1862 many Santee were sent to [[Crow Creek Indian Reservation]] and in 1864 some from the Crow Creek Reservation were sent to the [[Santee Sioux Reservation]].
* '''Santee division (Eastern Dakota)''' ({{Lang|dak|Isáŋyathi}})<ref name="NLD" />
** [[Mdewakanton]]wan ({{Lang|dak|Bdewékhaŋthuŋwaŋ}} {{Gloss|Spirit Lake Village}})<ref name="NLD" />
**: notable persons: [[Little Crow]]
** Sisseton ({{Lang|dak|Sisíthuŋwaŋ}}, perhaps meaning {{Gloss|Fishing Grounds Village}})
** Wahpekute ({{Lang|dak|Waȟpékhute}}, {{Gloss|Leaf Archers}})<ref name="NLD" />
**: notable persons: [[Inkpaduta]]
** Wahpetonwan ({{Lang|dak|Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ}}, {{Gloss|Leaf Village}})<ref name="NLD" />
**: notable persons: [[Charles Eastman]] (Ohiyesa)
==={{Lang|dak|Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ-Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna}} (Yankton-Yanktonai or Western Dakota)===
{{anchor|Western Dakota}} {{Main|Dakota people}}
The {{Lang|dak|Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ-Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna}}, also known by the [[Anglicisation|anglicized]] names ''Yankton'' ({{Lang|dak|Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ}}: {{Gloss|End village}}) and ''Yanktonai'' ({{Lang|dak|Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna}}: {{Gloss|Little end village}}), consist of two bands or two of the Seven Council Fires. According to ''Nasunatanka'' and ''Matononpa'' in 1880, the Yanktonai are divided into two sub-groups known as the Upper Yanktonai and the Lower Yanktonai (Hunkpatina).<ref name="riggs"/> Today, most of the Yanktons live on the [[Yankton Indian Reservation]] in southeastern South Dakota. Some Yankton live on the [[Lower Brule Indian Reservation]] and [[Crow Creek Indian Reservation]]. The Yanktonai are divided into Lower Yanktonai, who occupy the Crow Creek Reservation; and Upper Yanktonai, who live in the northern part of [[Standing Rock Indian Reservation]], on the [[Spirit Lake Tribe]] in central North Dakota, and in the eastern half of the [[Fort Peck Indian Reservation]] in northeastern Montana. In addition, they reside at several Canadian reserves, including Birdtail, Oak Lake, and Moose Woods.<ref name="NLD" />
They were involved in quarrying [[Catlinite|pipestone]]. The Yankton-Yanktonai moved into northern Minnesota. In the 18th century, they were recorded as living in the [[Mankato]] region of Minnesota.<ref name="Dakota ways">{{cite book |last1=OneRoad |first1=Amos E. |last2=Skinner |first2=Alanson |title=Being Dakota: Tales and Traditions of the Sisseton and Wahpeton |publisher=Minnesota Historical Society |year=2003 |isbn=0-87351-453-X }}</ref>
* '''Yankton-Yanktonai division (Western Dakota)''' ({{Lang|dak|Wičhíyena}})
** Yankton ({{Lang|dak|Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ}}, {{Gloss|End Village}})<ref name="NLD" />
** Yanktonai ({{Lang|dak|Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna}}, {{Gloss|Little End Village}})<ref name="NLD" />
*** Upper Yanktonai
*** Unkpatina<ref>not to be confused with the Oglala ''thiyóšpaye'' bearing the same name, "Unkpatila", the most famous member of which was [[Crazy Horse]]</ref> or Lower Yanktonai
**: notable persons: [[Wanata]] and [[War Eagle (Dakota Leader)|War Eagle]]
==={{Lang|dak|Thítȟuŋwaŋ}} (Teton or Lakota)===
{{Main|Lakota people}}
Prior to obtaining horses in the 17th century, the Lakota were located near present-day Minnesota. Dominating the northern Great Plains with their light cavalry, the western Sioux quickly expanded their territory to the [[Rocky Mountains]] (which they call {{Lang|dak|Heska}}, {{Gloss|white mountains}}) by the 1800s.
Their traditional diet includes [[American bison|bison]] and corn. They traditionally acquired corn mostly through trade with the eastern Sioux and their linguistic cousins, the [[Mandan]] and [[Hidatsa]] along the [[Missouri River]] prior to the reservation era.<ref name="riggs"/> The name ''Teton'' or {{Lang|dak|Thítȟuŋwaŋ}} is archaic among the people, who prefer to call themselves {{Lang|dak|Lakȟóta}}.<ref name="NLD">{{cite book |last=Ullrich |first=Jan |title=New Lakota Dictionary (Incorporating the Dakota Dialects of Yankton-Yanktonai and Santee-Sisseton) |publisher=Lakota Language Consortium |year=2008 |pages=1–2 |isbn=978-0-9761082-9-0 }}</ref> Today, the Lakota are the largest and westernmost of the three groups, occupying lands in both [[North Dakota|North]] and [[South Dakota]].
* '''Teton division ([[Lakota people|Lakota]])''' (''{{Lang|dak|Thítȟuŋwaŋ}}'',<ref name="NLD" /> perhaps meaning {{Gloss|Dwellers on the Prairie}}):
** [[Oglala Lakota|Oglála]] (perhaps meaning {{Gloss|Those Who Scatter Their Own}})
**: notable persons: [[Crazy Horse]], [[Red Cloud]], [[Black Elk]], [[Iron Tail]], [[Flying Hawk]], and [[Billy Mills]] (Olympian)
** [[Hunkpapa]] ({{Lang|dak|Húŋkpapȟa}},<ref name="NLD" /> meaning {{Gloss|Those who Camp by the Door}} or {{Gloss|Wanderers}})
**: notable persons: [[Sitting Bull]]
** [[Sihasapa]] ({{Lang|dak|Sihásapa}}, {{Gloss|Blackfoot Sioux}},<ref name="NLD" /> not to be confused with the [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]]-speaking [[Piegan Blackfeet]])
**: notable persons: [[John Grass]] (Matȟó Watȟákpe)
** [[Miniconjou]] ({{Lang|dak|Mnikȟówožu}}, {{Gloss|Those who Plant by Water}})<ref name="NLD" />
**: notable persons: [[Lone Horn]] and [[Touch the Clouds]]
** [[Brulé]] ([[French language|French]] translation of {{Lang|dak|Sičháŋǧu}}, {{Gloss|Burned Thigh}})<ref name="NLD" />
**: notable persons: [[Spotted Tail]]
** [[Sans Arc]] (French translation of {{Lang|dak|Itázipčho}}, {{Gloss|Those Without Bows}})<ref name="NLD" />
**: notable persons: [[Black Hawk (artist)|Black Hawk]] (Čhetáŋ Sápa')
** [[Two Kettles]] ({{Lang|dak|Oóhenuŋpa}}, {{Gloss|Two Boilings}})<ref name="NLD" />
**: notable persons: [[Eagle Woman|Eagle Woman That All Look At]] (Waŋblí Ayútepiwiŋ)
==Reservations and reserves==
[[File:Sioux01.png|thumb|left|Location of Sioux tribes prior to 1770 (dark green) and their current reservations (orange) in the US]]
In the late 19th century, railroads wanted to build tracks through Indian lands. The railroad companies hired hunters to exterminate the bison herds, the Plains Indians' primary food supply. The Dakota and Lakota were forced to accept US-defined reservations in exchange for the rest of their lands and farming and ranching of domestic cattle, as opposed to a nomadic, hunting economy. During the first years of the [[Indian reservation#Rise of Indian removal policy|Reservation Era]], the Sioux people depended upon annual federal payments guaranteed by treaty for survival.
In Minnesota, the treaties of [[Treaty of Traverse des Sioux|Traverse des Sioux]] and [[Treaty of Mendota|Mendota]] in 1851 left the Dakota with a reservation {{convert|20|mi}} wide on each side of the Minnesota River.
Today, half of all enrolled Sioux in the United States live off-[[Indian reservation|reservation]]. Enrolled members in any of the Sioux tribes in the United States are required to have ancestry that is at least [[Blood quantum laws|1/4 degree]] Sioux (the equivalent to one grandparent).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tribalresourcecenter.org/ccfolder/sisseton_wahpeton_codeoflaw2.htm |title=Enrollment Ordinance |publisher=tribalresourcecenter.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928084031/http://www.tribalresourcecenter.org/ccfolder/sisseton_wahpeton_codeoflaw2.htm |archive-date=2007-09-28 }}</ref>
In Canada, the Canadian government recognizes the tribal community as [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]]. The land holdings of these First Nations are called [[Indian reserve]]s.
{{Clear}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Reserve/Reservation<ref name="Sioux nation"/>
! Community
! Bands residing
! Location
|-
| [[Fort Peck Indian Reservation]]
| [[Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes]]
| Hunkpapa, Upper Yanktonai (Pabaksa), Sisseton, Wahpeton, and the Hudesabina (Red Bottom), Wadopabina (Canoe Paddler), Wadopahnatonwan (Canoe Paddlers Who Live on the Prairie), Sahiyaiyeskabi (Plains Cree-Speakers), Inyantonwanbina (Stone People), and Fat Horse Band of the Assiniboine
| [[Montana]], US
|-
| [[Spirit Lake Reservation]]
<sub>(Formerly Devil's Lake Reservation)</sub>
| [[Spirit Lake Tribe]]
<sub>(Mni Wakan Oyate)</sub>
| Wahpeton, Sisseton, Upper Yanktonai
| [[North Dakota]], US
|-
| [[Standing Rock Indian Reservation]]
| [[Standing Rock Sioux Tribe]]
| Lower Yanktonai, Sihasapa, Upper Yanktonai, Hunkpapa
| North Dakota, [[South Dakota]], US
|-
| [[Lake Traverse Indian Reservation]]
| [[Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate]]
| Sisseton, Wahpeton
| South Dakota, US
|-
| [[Flandreau Indian Reservation]]
| [[Flandreau Santee Sioux Tribe]]
| Mdewakanton, Wahpekute, Wahpeton
| South Dakota, US
|-
| [[Cheyenne River Indian Reservation]]
|[[Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe]]
| Minneconjou, Sihasapa, Two Kettle, Sans Arc
| South Dakota, US
|-
| [[Crow Creek Indian Reservation]]
| [[Crow Creek Sioux Tribe]]
| Lower Yanktonai, Mdewakanton
| South Dakota, US
|-
| [[Lower Brule Indian Reservation]]
| [[Lower Brule Sioux Tribe]]
| Brulé
| South Dakota, US
|-
| [[Yankton Indian Reservation|Yankton Sioux Indian Reservation]]
| [[Yankton Sioux Tribe]]
| Yankton
| South Dakota, US
|-
| [[Pine Ridge Indian Reservation]]
| [[Oglala Lakota]]
| Oglala, few Brulé
| South Dakota, US
|-
| [[Rosebud Indian Reservation]]
| [[Rosebud Sioux Tribe]] (also as Sicangu Lakota or Upper Brulé Sioux Nation)
<sub>(Sičháŋǧu Oyate)</sub>
| Sićangu (Brulé), few Oglala
| South Dakota, US
|-
| [[Upper Sioux Indian Reservation]]
| [[Upper Sioux Community]]
<sub>(Pejuhutazizi Oyate)</sub>
| Mdewakanton, Sisseton, Wahpeton
| [[Minnesota]], US
|-
| [[Lower Sioux Indian Reservation]]
| [[Lower Sioux Indian Community]]
| Mdewakanton, Wahpekute
| Minnesota, US
|-
| [[Shakopee-Mdewakanton Indian Reservation]]
<sub>(Formerly Prior Lake Indian Reservation)</sub>
| [[Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community]]
| Mdewakanton, Wahpekute
| Minnesota, US
|-
| [[Prairie Island Indian Community]]
| [[Prairie Island Indian Community]]
| Mdewakanton, Wahpekute
| Minnesota, US
|-
| [[Santee Indian Reservation]]
| [[Santee Sioux Nation]]
| Mdewakanton, Wahpekute
| [[Nebraska]], US
|-
| [[Sioux Valley First Nation#Reserves|Sioux Valley Dakota Nation Reserve]], [[Sioux Valley First Nation#Reserves|Fishing Station 62A Reserve]]*
| [[Sioux Valley First Nation]]
| Sisseton, Mdewakanton, Wahpeton, Wahpekute
| [[Manitoba]], [[Canada]]
|-
| [[Dakota Plains First Nation|Dakota Plains Indian Reserve 6A]]
| [[Dakota Plains First Nation]]
| Wahpeton, Sisseton
| Manitoba, Canada
|-
| [[Portage la Prairie|Dakota Tipi 1 Reserve]]
| [[Portage la Prairie|Dakota Tipi First Nation]]
| Wahpeton
| Manitoba, Canada
|-
| [[Birdtail Sioux First Nation|Birdtail Creek 57 Reserve]], [[Birdtail Sioux First Nation|Birdtail Hay Lands 57A Reserve]], [[Birdtail Sioux First Nation|Fishing Station 62A Reserve]]*
| [[Birdtail Sioux First Nation]]
| Mdewakanton, Wahpekute, Yanktonai
| Manitoba, Canada
|-
| [[Canupawakpa Dakota First Nation]], [[Canupawakpa Dakota Nation|Oak Lake 59A Reserve]], [[Canupawakpa Dakota Nation|Fishing Station 62A Reserve]]*
| [[Canupawakpa Dakota First Nation]]
| Wahpekute, Wahpeton, Yanktonai
| Manitoba, Canada
|-
| [[Standing Buffalo 78]]
| [[Standing Buffalo Dakota Nation]]
| Sisseton, Wahpeton
| [[Saskatchewan]], Canada
|-
| [[Whitecap Dakota First Nation|Whitecap Reserve]]
| [[Whitecap Dakota First Nation]]
| Wahpeton, Sisseton
| Saskatchewan, Canada
|-
| [[Assiniboia, Saskatchewan|Wood Mountain 160 Reserve]], [[Treaty Four Reserve Grounds Indian Reserve No. 77]]*
| [[Wood Mountain, Saskatchewan|Wood Mountain]]
| Assiniboine (Nakota), Hunkpapa
| Saskatchewan, Canada
|}
* Reserves shared with other First Nations
== Population history ==
In year 1762 lieutenant James Gorrell complained about a lack of funds to disperse adequate presents to the 30,000 Sioux warriors for whom he estimated he had responsibility, which would indicate a total population of around 150,000 people (on average 5 persons per one warrior).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Royce Blaine |first=Martha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu4MvZlu6Y4C&pg=PA45 |title=The Ioway Indians |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-8061-2728-6 |location= |page=45}}</ref><ref name=":5">[http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/gorrell_james_3E.html James Gorrell]</ref> Such high population appears to be confirmed by French Jesuits who visited 40 Sioux villages in 1660 and counted 5,000 men only in five of them (on average 1,000 men per village). Almost a century after Gorrell's estimate, in 1841, [[George Catlin]] estimated the Sioux as up to 50,000 people, and mentioned that they had just lost approx. 8,000 dead to smallpox a few years prior. [[Alexander Ramsey]] (Indian Affairs 1849) estimated that in 1846 the Sioux had 5,000 lodges averaging over 10 people per lodge, indicating a population of over 50,000. During the second half of the 19th century Sioux population further declined. In 1865 the Sioux were estimated at up to 40,000 people. Indian Affairs 1880 returned 31,747 people. The census of 1890 returned 25,675. Indian Affairs 1900 returned 27,169. The census of 1910 returned 23,318 (including 14,284 Tetons). In addition Canadian Indian Affairs counted 2,000 Sioux in Canada in 1886.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krzywicki |first=Ludwik |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4381154&view=1up&seq=346&skin=2021 |title=Primitive society and its vital statistics |publisher=Macmillan |year=1934 |series=Publications of the Polish Sociological Institute |location=London |pages=536–537}}</ref>
During the 20th and 21st centuries Sioux population has rebounded, reaching 207,456 in the USA according to the 2020 census.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Distribution of American Indian tribes: Sioux People in the US |url=https://www.statimetric.com/us-ethnicity/American_Indian_tribes_Sioux}}</ref>
==Notable Sioux==
===Historical===
[[File:Grabill - Red Cloud and American Horse.jpg|thumb|Chiefs [[Red Cloud]] and [[American Horse]] (1891)]]
[[File:US-$5-SC-1899-Fr.271.jpg|thumb|[[Running Antelope]], a Hunkpapa Lakota Chief, depicted on the US 1899 $5 [[Silver certificate (United States)|silver certificate]].]]
{{columns-list|
* Šóta ([[Old Chief Smoke]]) — an original Oglala Lakota head chief
* Siŋté Glešká ([[Spotted Tail]]) — Brulé chief who resisted joining [[Red Cloud's War]]
* Thaóyate Dúta ([[Little Crow]]/His Red Nation) — Mdewakanton Dakota chief and warrior
* Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake ([[Sitting Bull]]) — Famous Hunkpapa Lakota chief and holy man
* Tȟašúŋke Witkó ([[Crazy Horse]]) — Famous Oglala Lakota warrior
* Maȟpíya Ičáȟtagye ([[Touch the Clouds]]) – Minneconjou Lakota chief and warrior
* Maȟpíya Lúta ([[Red Cloud]]) — Famous Oglala Lakota chief and spokesperson
* Heȟáka Sápa ([[Black Elk]]) — Famous Oglala Lakota medicine and holy man
* Ité Omáǧažu ([[Rain-in-the-Face]]) — Hunkpapa Lakota war chief
* Tȟáȟča Hušté ([[Lame Deer]]) — Mineconju Lakota holy man and spiritual preserver
* Wí Sápa ([[Black Moon (person)|Black Moon]]) — Miniconjou Lakota chief
* Matȟó Héȟloǧeča ([[Hollow Horn Bear]]) — Sicangu (Brulé) Lakota leader
* Phizí ([[Gall (Native American leader)|Gall]]) — Hunkpapa Lakota war chief
* Ógle Lúta ([[Red Shirt (Oglala)|Red Shirt]]) — Oglala Lakota warrior and chief
* Inkpáduta ([[Inkpaduta|Scarlet Point]]/Red End) — Wahpekute Dakota war chief
* Waŋbdí Tháŋka ([[Big Eagle]]) — Mdewakanton Dakota chief
* Tamaha ([[Tamaha (Dakota scout)|One Eye/Standing Moose]]) — Mdewekanton Dakota scout for the U.S. during War of 1812
* Óta Kté ([[Luther Standing Bear]]/Plenty Kill) — Oglala Lakota writer and actor
* Núŋp Kaȟpá ([[Two Strike (Lakota leader)|Two Strike]]) — Sicangu Lakota chief
* Čhetáŋ Sápa ([[Black Hawk (artist)|Black Hawk]]) — Itázipčho Lakota [[ledger art]]ist
* Tȟatȟóka Íŋyaŋke ([[Running Antelope]]) — Hunkpapa Lakota chief
* Matȟó Watȟákpe ([[John Grass]]/Charging Bear) — Sihasapa Lakota chief
* Tȟatȟáŋka Ská ([[White Bull]]) — Miniconjou Lakota warrior and nephew of Sitting Bull
* Waŋblí Kté ([[Kill Eagle]]) — Sihasapa Lakota warrior and leader
* Šúŋkawakȟáŋ Tȟó (Blue Horse) — Oglala chief, warrior, educator, and statesman
* Matȟó Wayúhi ([[Conquering Bear]]) — Sičháŋǧu Lakota chief
* Čhetáŋ Kiŋyáŋ ([[Flying Hawk]]) — Oglala Lakota chief, philosopher, and historian
* Matȟó Wanáȟtake ([[Kicking Bear]]) — Oglala born Miniconjou Lakota warrior and chief
* Uŋpȟáŋ Glešká ([[Spotted Elk]]/Big Foot) — Miniconjou Lakota chief
* Hé Waŋžíča ([[Lone Horn]]) — Miniconjou Lakota chief
* Kȟaŋǧí Yátapi ([[Crow King]]/Medicine Bag That Burns) — Hunkpapa Lakota war chief
* Wičháša Tȟáŋkala ([[Little Big Man]]/Charging Bear) — Oglala Lakota warrior
* Šúŋka Khúčiyela ([[Low Dog]]) — Oglala Lakota chief and warrior
* Wašíčuŋ Tȟašúŋke ([[American Horse]]) ("The Younger") — Oglala Lakota chief
* Wašíčuŋ Tȟašúŋke ([[American Horse (elder)|American Horse]]) ("The Elder") — Oglala Lakota chief
* Tȟašúŋke Kȟokípȟapi ([[Young Man Afraid Of His Horses]]) — Oglala Lakota chief
* Ištáȟba ([[Ishtakhaba|Sleepy Eye]]) — Sisseton Dakota chief
* Ohíyes’a ([[Charles Eastman]]) — Author, physician, and reformer
* Colonel [[Gregory "Pappy" Boyington]] — World War II fighter ace and Medal of Honor recipient; 1/4 Sioux
* Charging Thunder (1877–1929), [[Sihasapa|Blackfoot Sioux]] chief who was part of [[Buffalo Bill]]'s Wild West Show in 1903, but remained in England when the show returned to America. He married Josephine, an American horse trainer who had just given birth to their first child, Bessie, and together they settled in [[Darwen]], before moving to [[Gorton]]. His name became ''George Edward Williams'', after registering with the British immigration authorities to enable him to find work. Williams ended up working at the [[Belle Vue Zoological Gardens|Belle Vue Zoo]] as an elephant keeper. He died from pneumonia on July 28, 1929. His interment was at Gorton's cemetery.
* Ziŋtkála-Šá ([[Gertrude Simmons Bonnin]]) — Author, educator, musician, and political activist
}}
==
[[File:MSgt Woodrow Wilson Keeble.jpg|thumb|[[Woodrow Keeble]], [[Medal of Honor]] recipient.]]
Contemporary Sioux people are listed under the tribes to which they belong.
* [[
* [[Lakota people#Notable Lakota|Lakota]]
:* [[Hunkpapa#Notable Hunkpapa Lakota people|Hunkpapa]]
:* [[Oglala Lakota#Notable Oglala|Oglala]]
:* [[Brulé#Notable Sicangu (Brulé)|Sicangu]]
* [[Dakota people]]
:* [[Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate]] of the [[Lake Traverse Indian Reservation]]
====By individual tribe====
* [[Fort Peck Indian Reservation#Notable tribal members|Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation]]
* [[Cheyenne River Indian Reservation#Notable tribal members|Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe of the Cheyenne River Reservation]]
* [[Crow Creek Reservation#Notable tribal members|
Crow Creek Sioux Tribe of the Crow Creek Reservation]]
* [[Flandreau Santee Sioux Tribe#Notable tribal members|Flandreau Santee Sioux Tribe]]
* [[Lower Brule Indian Reservation#Notable tribal members|Lower Brule Sioux Tribe of the Lower Brule Reservation]]
* [[Rosebud Indian Reservation#Notable tribal members and residents|Rosebud Sioux Tribe of the Rosebud Indian Reservation]]
* [[Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community#Notable tribal members|Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community]]
* [[Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate#Notable members of the tribe|Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate]]
* [[Standing Rock Indian Reservation#Notable tribal members|Standing Rock Sioux Tribe of North & South Dakota]]
* [[Yankton Sioux Tribe#Notable members of the tribe|Yankton Sioux Tribe of South Dakota]]
* [[Spirit Lake Tribe#Government|Spirit Lake Dakota Tribe]]
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
{{notelist}}
==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Chaky |first=Doreen |year=2014 |title=Terrible justice: Sioux Chiefs and U.S. Soldiers on the Upper Missouri, 1854–1868 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=9780870624148}}
* {{cite book |last=Hassrick |first=Royal B |year=1977 |title=The Sioux: life and customs of a warrior society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SiJT9rK6YugC&pg=PP1 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=0-8061-0607-7 |access-date=November 12, 2015 |archive-date=May 8, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508204003/https://books.google.com/books?id=SiJT9rK6YugC&lpg=PP1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Guy E |year=2003 |title=The Sioux: the Dakota and Lakota nations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8WyblLdXYIC&pg=PP1 |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=1-55786-566-3 |access-date=November 12, 2015 |archive-date=May 5, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505012416/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8WyblLdXYIC&lpg=PP1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=McLaughlin |first=Marie L |year=2010 |title=Myths and Legends of the Sioux |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GL1Q5Twhg9gC&pg=PP1 |publisher=BiblioBazaar |isbn=978-1-141-80554-9 |access-date=November 12, 2015 |archive-date=May 21, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521064001/https://books.google.com/books?id=GL1Q5Twhg9gC&lpg=PP1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Hyde |first=George E |year=1993 |title=A Sioux chronicle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iyOGOGPN9FkC&pg=PP1 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=0-8061-2483-0 |access-date=November 12, 2015 |archive-date=June 17, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617131047/https://books.google.com/books?id=iyOGOGPN9FkC&lpg=PP1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last2=Brininstool |first2=E A |last1=Standing Bear |first1=Luther |year=2006 |title=My People the Sioux |url=https://archive.org/details/mypeoplesioux00stan |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=0-8032-9332-1 }}
* [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2012/08/pine-ridge/fuller-text In the Shadow of Wounded Knee] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120726132641/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com//2012//08//pine-ridge//fuller-text |date=July 26, 2012 }} August 2012 [[National Geographic (magazine)]] with [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2012/08/pine-ridge/reservation-map Reservation map history] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719230221/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2012/08/pine-ridge/reservation-map |date=July 19, 2012 }}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Sioux}}
===Official===
{{columns-list|
* [https://www.cheyenneriversioux.com/ Official site] of the [[Cheyenne River Reservation]]
* [http://www.fortpecktribes.org/ Official site] of the [[Fort Peck Reservation]]
* [http://www.spiritlakenation.com/ Official site] of the [[Spirit Lake Reservation]]
* [https://www.standingrock.org/ Official site] of the [[Standing Rock Reservation]]
* [https://www.swo-nsn.gov/ Official site] of the [[Lake Traverse Reservation]]
* [https://fsst-nsn.gov/ Official site] of the [[Flandreau Indian Reservation|Flandreau Reservation]]
* [https://www.crowcreeksiouxtribe.org/ Official site] of the [[Crow Creek Reservation]]
* [https://www.lowerbrulesiouxtribe.com/ Official site] of the [[Lower Brule Indian Reservation|Lower Brule Reservation]]
* [https://www.yanktonsiouxtribe.net/ Official site] of the [[Yankton Indian Reservation|Yankton Reservation]]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20230403135054/https://oglalalakotanation.net/ (Archived) Official site]}} of the [[Pine Ridge Reservation]]
* [https://www.rosebudsiouxtribe-nsn.gov/ Official site] of the [[Rosebud Reservation]]
* [http://www.uppersiouxcommunity-nsn.gov/ Official site] of the [[Upper Sioux Indian Reservation|Upper Sioux Reservation]]
* [http://lowersioux.com/ Official site] of the [[Lower Sioux Reservation]]
* [https://www.shakopeedakota.org/ Official site] of the [[Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community]]
* [http://prairieisland.org/ Official site] of the [[Prairie Island Indian Community|Prairie Island Community]]
* [http://www.svdngovernance.com/ Official site] of the [[Sioux Valley Dakota Nation]]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20230415040055/https://birdtailsioux.ca/ (Archived) Official site]}} of the [[Birdtail Sioux First Nation]]
* [http://canupawakpanation.com/ Official site] of the [[Canupawakpa Dakota First Nation]]
* [http://whitecapdakota.com/ Official site] of the [[Whitecap Dakota First Nation]]
* [http://www.dakotatipi.ca/ Official site] of the Dakota Tipi First Nation
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20220825162840/https://www.dakotaplainswahpetonoyate.com/ (Archived) Official site]}} of the [[Dakota Plains First Nation]]}}
{{Native Americans in Nebraska}}
{{Authority control}}
[[
[[Category:Plains tribes]]
[[
[[Category:Native American tribes]]
[[Category:Native American history of Iowa]]
[[Category:Native American history of Minnesota]]
[[Category:Native American history of Montana]]
[[Category:Native American history of Nebraska]]
[[Category:Native American history of South Dakota]]
[[Category:Native American history of North Dakota]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Iowa]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Minnesota]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Montana]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Nebraska]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in South Dakota]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in North Dakota]]
[[Category:First Nations in Manitoba]]
[[Category:First Nations in Saskatchewan]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Wyoming]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Tribal Confederacies of indigenous peoples of North America]]
[[Category:Exonyms]]
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